Organon. Aristotle

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СКАЧАТЬ many media, but in voice, one, viz. the hoarse.

      Again, in that which is contradictorily opposed, we must consider if it is predicated multitariously, for if this is multifariously predicated, the opposite to this also will be enunciated multitariously; thus, not to see, is predicated in many ways; in one, not to have sight; in another, not to energize with the sight. Now if this is multifariously, to see, must necessarily be multifariously predicated; for to each (signification of the verb) not to see, there will be something opposed, thus to the not possessing sight, the possession of it, and to the not energizing with the sight, the energizing with it.

      Further, we must remark this, in the case of those things, which are predicated according to privation and habit; for if the one, is multifariously predicated, the other is, also; thus, if to perceive, is predicated multifariously, both according to the soul and according to the body, to be deprived of sense, will be multifariously predicated, i. e. both according to the soul and the body. Nevertheless, that the particulars now mentioned, are opposed according to privation and habit, is evident, since animals are naturally adapted to possess each of the senses, viz. both according to the soul and according to the body.

      We must look also to the cases, for if "justly" is predicated multifariously, "the just" also, will be multifariously predicated; for the just subsists according to each of those which are justly, thus if justly is predicated, both of judging according to one's own opinions, and also in a proper manner, the just is similarly. Likewise, if the healthy is multifariously, the healthily also, will be spoken multifariously, as if that is called "healthy," which produces, preserves, and signifies health, the "healthily" also, will be predicated either productively, or preservingly, or significantly. And in like manner in other things, when (the noun) itself is multifariously predicated, the case also derived from it, will be spoken in many ways, and if the case (the noun) itself besides.

      ​We must regard too, the genera of the categories, as to name, whether they are the same in all things, since if they are not the same, it is evident that what is predicated, is equivocal; thus good in food is what produces pleasure, in medicine, what produces health, in the soul, to be of a certain quality, as temperate, or brave, or just, similarly also in the case of man. Sometimes indeed it is "the when," as the good in opportunity, for that is called good, which is in season: frequently also quantity, for instance, the moderate, for the moderate also is called good, so that good is equivocal. Likewise clearness in respect of body, is colour, but in voice, that which may easily be heard, and in like manner the acute, for the same, is not predicated in all things, after the same manner, for a rapid voice is called acute, as musicians say, who are conversant with numbers; but an angle is acute, which is less than a right angle, and a sword is acute, which has a sharp point.

      We must also notice the genera, of those things which are under the same name, whether they are different and not subaltern, thus ὄνος is both an animal and a vessel, since the definition of them according to the name, is different, for the one will be said to be a certain kind of animal, but the other a certain kind of vessel. If however the genera are subaltern, the definitions need not be different, as of a crow, both animal and bird are the genus, when therefore we say, that a crow is a bird, we also say, that it is a certain kind of animal, so that both genera are predicated of it; likewise also when we say that a crow is a winged biped animal, we say that it is a bird, and thus then both the genera are predicated of the crow, and also the definition of them. This nevertheless does not occur in genera which are not subaltern, since neither when we speak of a vessel, do (we speak of) an animal, nor when (we speak of) an animal, (do we mean) a vessel.

      Not only indeed must we observe whether the genera of the thing proposed, be different and not subaltern, but also in regard to the contrary, since ​if the contrary is predicated in several ways, it is evident that the proposition will be so too.

      It is useful also, to regard the definition produced from the composite, as of a white body and white (i. e. clear) voice; for the property being taken away, it is necessary that the same definition should be left. Now this does not occur in equivocals, for instance, in the things now spoken of, for the one, will be body having such a colour, but the other, will be an audible voice; body, then, and voice being taken away, what remains is not the same in each, at least it would be necessary if white, were synonymous, that what is predicated in each (definition), should be (the same).

      Frequently also in the definitions themselves, the equivocal, which is consequent, escapes us, wherefore, we must look to the definitions. Thus, if any one were to say, that what is significant and productive of health, is that which is symmetrically disposed with respect to health, we must not leave off, but consider what he calls symmetrically, in each, as if the one, were to be of such a kind, as to produce health, but the other, such as to signify, what is the quality of the habit.

      Moreover, (we are to examine) whether they may not be compared according to the more, or similarly, as a light voice, and a light garment, and a sharp flavour, and a sharp voice, for these are neither called light nor sharp similarly, nor one, more than the other. So that the light, and the sharp, are equivocal, for every synonym is capable of comparison, since it will either be predicated similarly, or one more than the other.

      Since however of things heterogeneous and not subaltern, the differences are also different in species, as of animal and science, (for the differences of these are diverse,) consider whether those things, which are under the same name, are the differences of different, and not of subaltern genera, as the acute (is the difference) of voice and magnitude, for voice, differs from voice, in acuteness, likewise also one mass, from another, so that the acute is equivocal, for these are the differences of diverse, and not of subaltern, genera.

      ​Again, (observe) whether of things under the same name, there be divers differences, as of the chroma which belongs to bodies, and of that which is in melodies, for of that which belongs to bodies, the differences are, that which diffuses, and that which condenses, the vision, but these are not the same differences of that which is in melodies, so that chroma is an equivocal word, for there are the same differences of the same things.

      Once more, since species is not the difference of any thing, notice of those which are under the same name, whether one is species, but the other, difference, as bodily clearness is a species of colour, but vocal (clearness) is a difference, since voice differs from voice, in being clear.

Chapter 16

       Table of Contents

      Concerning therefore what is multifariously predicated, we must consider it through these and such as these; but the differences we must investigate in the genera themselves with respect to each other, as what difference there is between justice and fortitude, prudence and temperance, (for all these are from the same genus, virtue,) and of those which do not differ very much, one from the other, as in what, sense, differs from, science, since in things which are very different, the differences are altogether palpable.

Chapter 17

       Table of Contents

      We must consider similitude in the case of things of different genera, (thus) as one thing is to another, so is another to another, for instance, as science to the object of science, so is sense to the ​object of sense, and as one thing in a certain other thing, so is another thing in another, e. g. as sight in the eye, so is intellect in the soul, and as tranquillity in the sea, so is serenity in the air. But most of all, it is necessary to be practised, in things vastly diverse, for we may easily perceive similitudes in the rest. Besides, we must also consider those things which are in the same genus, whether something identical is present СКАЧАТЬ