The Glass Universe: The Hidden History of the Women Who Took the Measure of the Stars. Дава Собел

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      THE YOUNG ISAAC NEWTON coined the word spectrum in 1666, to describe the rainbow colors that arose like ghostly apparitions when daylight passed through cut glass or crystal. Although his contemporaries thought glass corrupted the purity of light by imparting color to it, Newton held that colors belonged to light itself. A prism merely revealed white light’s component hues by refracting them at different angles, so that each could be seen individually.

      The microscopic dark lines within the stellar spectra, to which Mrs. Fleming now directed her attention, were called Fraunhofer lines, after Joseph von Fraunhofer of Bavaria, their discoverer. A glazier’s son, Fraunhofer had apprenticed at a mirror factory and gone on to become a master crafter of telescope lenses. In 1816, in order to measure the exact degree of refraction in different glass recipes and lens configurations, he built a device that combined a prism with a surveyor’s small telescope. When he directed a beam of light from the prism through a slit and into the instrument’s magnified field of view, he beheld a long, narrow rainbow marked by many dark lines. Repeated trials convinced him that the lines, like the rainbow colors, were not artifacts of passage through glass, but inherent in sunlight. Fraunhofer’s lens-testing apparatus was the world’s first spectroscope.

      Charting his finds, Fraunhofer labeled the most prominent lines with letters of the alphabet: A for the wide black one at the rainbow’s extreme red end, D for a dark double stripe in the orange-yellow range, and so on through the blue and violet to a pair named H, and ending farther along the violet with I.

      Fraunhofer’s lines retained their original alphabetical designations through the decades following his death, gaining greater importance as later scientists observed, mapped, interpreted, measured, and depicted them with fine-nib pens. In 1859 chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, working together in Heidelberg, translated the Fraunhofer lines of the Sun’s spectrum into evidence for the presence of specific earthly substances. They heated numerous purified elements to incandescence in the laboratory, and showed that each one’s flame produced its own characteristic spectral signature. Sodium, for example, emitted a close-set pair of bright orange-yellow streaks. These correlated in wavelength with the dark doublet of lines that Fraunhofer had labeled D. It was as though the laboratory sample of burning sodium had colored in those particular dark gaps in the Sun’s rainbow. From a series of such congruities, Kirchhoff concluded the Sun must be a fireball of multiple burning elements, shrouded in a gaseous atmosphere. As light radiated through the Sun’s outer layers, the bright emission lines from the solar conflagration were absorbed in the cooler surrounding atmosphere, leaving dark telltale gaps in the solar spectrum.

      Astronomers, many of whom had considered the Sun a temperate, potentially habitable world, were shocked to learn of its inferno-like heat. However, they were soon placated—even soothed—by the revelatory power of spectroscopy to expose the chemical content of the firmament. “Spectrum analysis,” Henry Draper told the Young Men’s Christian Association of New York in 1866, “has made the chemist’s arms millions of miles long.”

      Throughout the 1860s, pioneering spectroscopists such as William Huggins discerned Fraunhofer lines in the spectra of other stars. In 1872 Henry Draper began photographing them. While the number of spectral lines in starlight paled in comparison to the rich tapestry of the Sun’s spectrum, several recognizable patterns emerged. It seemed that the stars, which had for so long been loosely categorized by brightness or color, could now be further sorted according to spectral features hinting at their true nature.

      In 1866 Father Angelo Secchi of the Vatican Observatory divided four hundred stellar spectra into four distinct types, which he designated by Roman numerals. Secchi’s Class I contained brilliant blue-white stars such as Sirius and Vega, whose spectra shared four strong lines indicating the presence of hydrogen. Class II included the Sun and yellowish stars like it, with spectra full of many fine lines identifying iron, calcium, and other elements. Classes III and IV both consisted of red stars, differentiated by the patterns in their dark spectral bands.

      Pickering challenged Mrs. Fleming to improve on this elementary class system. Whereas Secchi had sketched his spectra from direct observations of a few hundred stars, she would enjoy the advantage of the Henry Draper Memorial photographs, boasting thousands of spectra for her scrutiny. The glass plates preserved more faithful portrayals of the positions of Fraunhofer’s lines than drawings could ever provide. Also, the plates picked up lines at the far violet end of the spectrum, at wavelengths the eye could not see.

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      MRS. FLEMING REMOVED EACH GLASS PLATE from its kraft paper sleeve without getting a single fingerprint on either of the eight-by-ten-inch surfaces. The trick was to hold the fragile packet by its side edges between her palms, set the bottom—open—end of the envelope on the lip of the specially designed stand, and then ease the paper up and off without letting go of the plate, as though undressing a baby. Making sure the emulsion faced away from her, she released her grip and let the glass settle into place. The wooden stand held the plate in a picture frame, tilted at a forty-five-degree angle. A mirror affixed to the flat base caught daylight from the computing room’s big windows and directed illumination up through the glass. Mrs. Fleming leaned in with her loupe for a privileged view of the stellar universe. She had often heard the director say, “A magnifying glass will show more in the photograph than a powerful telescope will show in the sky.”

      Hundreds of spectra hung suspended on the plate. All were small—little more than one centimeter for the brighter stars, only half a centimeter for the fainter ones. Each had to be tagged with a new Henry Draper catalogue number, and also identified by its coordinates, which Mrs. Fleming determined using the millimeter and centimeter rules inscribed on the wooden plate frame. She read off these numbers to a colleague who sat beside her, penciling the information into a logbook. Later they would match the Henry Draper numbers to the stars’ existing names or numbers, if any, handed down from previous catalogues.

      In the rune-like lines of the spectra, Mrs. Fleming read enough variety to quadruple the number of star categories recognized by Father Secchi. She replaced his Roman numerals, which quickly grew cumbersome, with Fraunhofer-style alphabetical order. The majority of stars fell into her A category because they displayed only the broad, dark lines due to hydrogen. The B spectra sported a few other dark lines in addition to those of hydrogen, and by her G category the presence of many more lines had become the norm. Type O bore only bright lines, and Q served her as a catchall category for peculiar spectra she could not otherwise pigeonhole.

      Pickering applauded Mrs. Fleming’s efforts, even as he conceded the arbitrary, empirical nature of her classification. He predicted that in time, with ever more stars studied, the underlying reasons for the different spectral appearances would reveal themselves. Possibly different stellar temperatures were responsible, or different chemical blends, different stages of stellar development, or some combination of such factors—or something as yet unimagined.

      In January 1887 Pickering hit on a way to enlarge some of the spectra from smudge-like traces to an impressive four inches by twenty-four. He astonished Mrs. Draper by sending her several examples. “It scarcely seems possible that stellar spectra can be taken which will bear the enlarging of those that you have sent me,” she wrote on January 23. “I wonder what Mr. Huggins will say when he sees them.” This question stimulated her to strengthen her support of the Henry Draper Memorial, which currently amounted to about $200 a month, by promising $8,000 or $9,000 per year in perpetuity.

      There seemed no reason for Mrs. Draper to cling any longer to the dream of continuing her husband’s research herself. She thought it best to divest the Hastings observatory of his remaining telescopes, and donate the lot to Harvard. The largest, with its 28-inch-diameter mirror, would likely prove a significant aid in Pickering’s pursuits. Still she wavered. It had been one thing to part with the 11-inch-aperture refractor, now ensconced at Cambridge, but the 28-inch reflector preserved precious memories of her wedding day.

      Henry СКАЧАТЬ