Acoustic and Vibrational Enhanced Oil Recovery. George V. Chilingar

Чтение книги онлайн.

СКАЧАТЬ epicenter was located at a distance of 130 to 170 km from the producing wells. In all three cases, a decrease in water cut and a respective increase in oil production was recorded in about a week after the earthquake. Nevertheless, on the average, decrease in the water cut was about 40% for all three wells for a considerable period of time. This and other similar facts led to extensive laboratory and field studies of artificial vibro-seismic enhancement of oil production. Theoretical and experimental aspects of this phenomenon and the mechanism of enhanced oil recovery due to the presence of elastic waves generated by surface-based vibrators have been studied during the last 40 years by Surguchev et al. (1984) [34], Simkin and Surguchev (1991) [31], Simkin (1992) [30], and Kouznetsov and Simkin (1994) [21].

Figure 1.1 Decrease in the water cut in three wells after an earthquake: 1 = Makhachkalinskoe field, 170 km from the earthquake epicenter; 2 = Shamkal-Bulakskoe field, 130 km from the epicenter; 3 = Novo-Groznenskoe field, 130 km from the epicenter. All fields are located in the northern Caucasus.

      In 1987, at one of Professor George V. Chilingar’s Petroleum Engineering Classes at the University of Southern California, his star student from Iran, K. Majid Sadeghi gave a lecture on his research on vibrational dewatering of contaminated muds. Professor Chilingar asked Sadeghi: “Now that we can dewater muds, can we use this technology to increase the production of oil from the oil sands? Sadeghi answered: “Absolutely.”

1.1 Origin and Migration of Oil

Under the influence of increasing overburden pressure and geothermal temperature, kerogen in argillaceous sediments will generate petroleum hydrocarbons by thermal decomposition. The chemical process of generation of oil has become well established (Welte, 1972 [37]). Many geologists believe that carrier water is necessary for the primary migration of oil (Hedberg, 1964 [16]). They consider that carrier water and oil migrate in the form of solution and/or emulsion. Interlayer water of montmorillonite released by transformation to illite during the late stage of diagenesis was considered to be essential for petroleum migration (Powers, 1967 [25]; Burst, 1969 [8]; Perry and Hower, 1972 [24]). On the other hand, Aoyagi and Asakawa (1980) [2] concluded that both the interlayer and interstitial water expelled during the middle stage of diagenesis were responsible for oil migration. On the other hand, McAuliffe (1966) [23] has objected to these opinions on the basis that oil is only very slightly soluble in water. Also, some geologists have favored the migration theories based on the movement of oil and gas due to the capillary phenomena, buoyancy effect, and gas expansion, which are generally independent of the movement of water (Dickey, 1975 [12]). Some migration of oil could also occur in a gaseous form (Chilingar and Adamson, 1964 [9]).

      Based on extensive observations, shales composed of non-expandable clays such as kaolinite and illite did not act as source rocks, because of the absence of water necessary to push out the oil (Chilingar and Knight, 1960 [11]; Aoyagi et al., 1975 [4]). Also, many undercompacted (overpressed) shales did not act as source rocks, because compaction mechanisms were not operative to squeeze the oil into the reservoir rocks.

      It is necessary to establish what conditions existed during the primary migration of oil (from the source rocks to reservoir rocks) compared to those during the secondary migration of oil (during production) to make the former so much more efficient. Several possible explanations are presented below. Among them are (1) seismic activity (earthquakes), (2) intense electrokinetics, (3) Earth tides, (4) compaction, and (5) migration in a gaseous form.

       1.1.1 Seismicity

      According to the site http://www.iris.washington.edu/SeismiQuery/events.htm, 66 earthquakes with magnitudes 2 or higher occurred over the globe on average per night for the period from 01.01.2000 to 01.01.2010.

      Assuming that the seismic activity of the planet Earth was the same as at the beginning of the 21st century, one can calculate how many earthquakes occurred during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic times:

       In the Paleozoic 69,507,200 million

       In the Mesozoic 27,429,750 million

       During the Cenozoic 7,924,150 million

      On considering precursor activity of earthquakes, the minimum frequency oscillations in the number of earthquakes, and gravity attraction of the Sun and the Moon, then the volume of fluid movements due to dynamic forces in the migration routes in the geological past was immense (Fedin et al., 2013 [14]).

The seismic vibrations (elastic oscillations) eliminate the blocking effects of the residual oil, gas, and water phases, enable movement through the low permeability zones, and increase the areal and vertical sweep efficiency.

      The physical theory behind the application of seismic vibration to increase production was discussed in detail by Beresnev and Johnson (1994) [5], Beresnev (2006) [6], Kouznetsov et al. (1998) [18], (2001) [19], (2002) [20], Pride et al. (2008) [26], and Fedin et al., (2013) [14].

Hydraulic fracturing also can occur with high-pressure impulses within the low-permeability zones (Kouznetsov et al. (2002) [20]). In the FSU, the use of various vibration techniques resulted in an incremental oil production of 200 million bbls (see Kouznetsov et al. (2002) [20], Figure 1.3). Fedin et al. (2013) [14] reported additional recovery of millions of bbls of oil by using explosions (60-kg explosives) in producing wells.

       1.1.2 Electrokinetics

Electric currents are prevalent in the Earth’s crust and probably were amplified in the geologic past (Serruya et al., 1967 [29]). Upon application of DC current, for example, the flow rate can increase many fold both in clays and sands (Amba et al., 1965 [1]; Chilingar et al., 1970 [10]). Thus, the presence of intense electric currents in the geologic past possibly facilitated primary migration of oil. Figure 1.2 shows the schematic diagram of electrokinetic double layer.

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of electrokinetic double layer (I: Immobile layer, II: Mobile double layer, III: Free water, IV: Velocity profile as envisioned by Dr. G. V. Chilingar. Solid curved line: velocity profile in a capillary. P-D.C., current power supply).

Theory of the electrokinetic flow is based on a double-layer theory as illustrated in Figure 1.2. According to Figure 1.2, the negatively charged surface of the clays attracts the positive ions of the aqueous medium, forming the immobile double layer. This immobile double layer is followed by a thick mobile layer with a predominance of positively charged ions (cations) with a few negatively charged ions (anions).

      Upon application of direct electric current, the mobile double-layer moves toward the cathode, dragging the free water. A schematic diagram of EEOR field setup, as used by Wittle et al. (2008) [38] and СКАЧАТЬ