Mediating Interpersonal and Small Group Conflict. Cheryl A. Picard

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      Chapter 1:

      Conflict Theory

      Conflict is an inevitable, pervasive, and important aspect of social life. It is a relational concept that involves the interaction of people or groups in society. Conflict is generated by differences in ideas, values, and beliefs. Although a familiar part of our existence, conflict has contradictory forms, processes, and outcomes. On the one hand, it can serve to enhance relations, increase productivity, and create new understandings. It helps to clarify and reinforce societal standards and provide an opportunity, for growth and moral development. On the other hand, conflict can create dysfunction and disorder in society, destroy relationships, and cause pain. The central assumption of conflict theory is that it has personal and social value – that it is “functional” for society (Coser, 1956). The study of conflict has been undertaken by a range of disciplines; its resolution has become the fascination of a diverse group of psychologists, sociologists, economists, and game theorists. The result is a field of study and practice that is both rich and stimulating.

       The central assumption of conflict theory is that it has personal and social value.

History

      Classical thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle viewed conflict as a threat to the success of the state, a view which led to the belief that conflict needed to be kept to a minimum, if not totally eliminated.¹ Seventeenth-century philosophers Hobbes and Locke posited the social contract theory that order was essential for a proper society. In opposition to the belief that conflict was undesirable and harmful, contemporary theorists argue that conflict is as essential to the proper functioning of society as are stability and order. For example, Simmel noted that social phenomena appeared in a new light when seen from an angle that included conflict as a positive element; Coser suggested that conflict within a group could help establish or reestablish cohesion; Dahrendorf stated that “not the presence, but the absence of conflict is surprising and abnormal, and we have good reason to be suspicious if we find a society or social organization that displays no evidence of conflict”; and Marx believed conflict was an important aspect of group formation. Coser’s book, The Functions of Social Conflict, published in 1956, is often cited as the cornerstone of current theories of social conflict. Coser positions conflict as a constructive form of socialization and posits that a certain degree of conflict is an ally in the formation and satisfactory continuation of group life.

Defining Conflict

      There is no one definition of conflict. Deutsch defines conflict as “existing whenever incompatible activities occur” (1973:10). Coser gives a fuller explanation; “conflict is a struggle over values or claims to status, power, and scarce resources, in which the aims of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals” (1968:232). Himes suggests that the way to approach the question of social conflict is to focus on the struggle between the actors. He defines conflict as “the purposeful struggles between collective actors who use social power to defeat or remove opponents and to gain status, power, resources and scarce values” (1980:14). Finally, Hocker and Wilmot define conflict as “an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals” (1995:21).

      Individuals and groups engage in conflict for the purpose of gaining something that is perceived to be in short supply, or over needs that appear incompatible. Moore (1986) identifies five causal elements of conflict. These causes are relationship issues, value conflicts, conflicts about interests, discrepancies over factual information, and clashes over structural inequality. Perceived incompatible goals and the perception of scarce resources are central to many conflict struggles. Resources can be physical, economic, or social commodities. Tangible resources, such as money, land, jobs, and position, are easily identified. It is intangible resources – love, esteem, recognition, and respect – that are much harder to identify. Power, status, and resources are the leading causes of conflict.

       A central element in interpersonal conflict is communication.

      A central element in the resolution of interpersonal conflict, and an underlying principle of this book, involves the role of communication. Communication is the verbal and non-verbal exchange of thoughts and emotions to exchange meaning. How one communicates in a conflict situation has profound implications for the residual impact of the conflict. Communication can exacerbate the situation or lead to productive management. For instance, rigid, insistent communication can defeat the constructive aspects of conflict while open, shared communication can build trust and lead to mutual understanding and productive resolution.

      The study of conflict is eclectic and multi-disciplinary and gives the appearance of being fragmented. Deutsch (1994), one of the leading psychologists in the study of conflict, suggests that beneath this appearance there are a number of common themes that cut across disciplines and types of conflict. He summarizes these commonalities in a number propositions. First, most conflicts are mixed-motive conflicts in which the parties involved in the conflict have both cooperative and competitive interests. Second, most conflict can be constructive as well as destructive. Conflict is the root of personal and social change and it is the medium through which problems can be aired and solutions found. The question is not how to eliminate or prevent conflict but rather how to develop the knowledge that will give rise to lively controversy instead of deadly quarrel. Third, within most conflicts, the cooperative and competitive interests of the parties give rise to two distinctive processes of conflict resolution – integrative (cooperative) bargaining and distributive (competitive) bargaining. Associated with the different processes are distinctive strategies and tactics for dealing with conflict, differing communication processes, and different attitudes. And fourth, whether the outcome of a conflict will be constructive or destructive depends on the relative strengths of the conflicting parties’ cooperative and competitive interests.

      Conflict occurs within a context of interdependence. For conflict to arise, the actions of one party must affect another; if they do not, differences would exist, but conflict would not (Katz and Lawyer, 1993). Conflict is also a matter of perception. If neither of the parties involved in an interaction perceives the situation to be problematic, then once again there is no conflict. For conflict to surface, one or more of the parties involved must perceive the status quo as problematic and want to change the situation in which they are interdependently involved.

       For conflict to surface, one or more of the parties involved must perceive the status quo as problematic and want to change the situation in which they are interdependently involved.

Responding to Conflict

      For conflict to be constructive, the parties involved must hold a number of essential beliefs. First, they must believe that people can change. In ongoing relationships, people usually adjust, accommodate, and compromise without losing their sense of self worth or giving up their needs. Inflexibility, however, destroys constructive conflict. Second, the parties must believe that allowing a conflict to go unresolved is not acceptable. Third, the parties involved must believe that their view of the conflict may be distorted or incomplete and that understanding the other party’s view of the situation is important. In this way, conflict becomes a learning experience that involves asking, sharing, moving, and changing. Fourth, those involved must have the will to find a solution that meets the interests СКАЧАТЬ