Essentials of Sociology. George Ritzer

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СКАЧАТЬ from a traditional critical theory perspective. Although sites such as Facebook are not yet huge bureaucracies, they do structure what is to be found there, especially through the use of algorithms. In addition, at least some of that which is to be found there is false.

      Ask Yourself

      Do you see evidence of critical theory’s ideas of falseness and repressiveness in the elements of mass culture to which you are exposed? If so, what forms do they take?

      Feminist Theory

      A central aspect of feminist theory in general is the critique of patriarchy (male dominance) and the problems it poses not only for women but also for men. Feminist theory also offers ideas on how everyone’s (women’s and men’s) situation can be bettered, if not revolutionized (Adichie 2015; Bromley 2012; Lengermann and Niebrugge-Brantley 2014; see also the journal Feminist Theory).

      Despite the many global and individual changes in women’s lives over the almost two centuries since sociology came into existence, there is also a broad consensus among feminist theorists that women continue to face extraordinary problems related directly to gender inequality. As you will learn about more in Chapter 9, these problems include, among innumerable others, a persistent wage gap between men and women in the United States and systematic and widespread rape by invading forces in wartime. These extraordinary problems require extraordinary solutions. However, feminist theories vary in the degree to which they support dramatic, even revolutionary, changes in women’s situation. Some feminist theories suggest that the solution to gender inequality is to change social structures and institutions so that they are more inclusive of women and allow more gender diversity. Other feminist theories argue that because those very structures and institutions create gender difference and inequality, we must first deconstruct and then rebuild them in a wholly different way.

      Women of color have sometimes been dissatisfied with feminist theory for not representing their interests very well. Several scholars argue that feminist theory generally reflects the perspective of white women while ignoring the unique experiences and viewpoints of women of color (Collins 2000; hooks 2000; Moraga and Anzaldua 2015; Zinn 2012). Similarly, studies related to race tend to focus largely (or wholly) on the position of men. Thus, many contemporary feminists have advocated for scholarship that takes into account not just gender but also how it intersects with race and ethnicity, social class, and sexuality. The upcoming discussion of critical theories of race and racism provides more detail on this view.

      Queer Theory

      The term queer was originally used as a negative term for gay men. Contemporary gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender and intersexed people have reclaimed the label queer, but now with a positive connotation. Queer theory is based on the argument that there are no fixed and stable identities that determine who we are (McCann 2016; Plummer 2019). The theory also unsettles identities that have long been thought to be fixed, stable, or natural. Among others, it unsettles queers as a noun, as well as gender identities in general (Butler 1990). Some queer theorists use the term genderqueer to refer to gender identities that are not exclusively male or female. Others believe that it is possible to be pangender, or identify as all genders. New pronouns such as xe and ze have been created as alternatives to he and she (Scelfo 2015). While queer theory does not focus exclusively on homosexuality, it does examine the dynamics of the relationship between heterosexuals and gay males and lesbians. It is especially concerned with the historic, systematic exercise of power by heterosexuals over gay males and lesbians. For example, gay males and lesbians have often, at least in the past, governed their own behavior in public, such as by foregoing displays of affection, to avoid making heterosexuals uncomfortable.

      Critical Theories of Race and Racism

      Critical theories of race and racism argue that race continues to matter globally and that racism continues to have adverse effects on people of color (Delgado and Stefancic 2017; Slatton and Feagin 2019).

      Critical theorists of race argue that “color-blindness,” or the notion that race no longer matters in determining an individual’s life chances and experiences, ignores the past and present realities facing racial minorities. Some suggest that color blindness is little more than a “new racism,” a smoke screen that allows whites to practice and perpetuate racial discrimination (Bonilla-Silva 2009, 2015). See the differing perceptions about employment opportunities illustrated in Figure 2.2, for example. The vast majority of white Americans believe that there is equal employment opportunity, but only a minority of black Americans subscribe to that view. The white belief in the smoke screen of equal opportunity serves to rationalize continued discrimination against blacks.

      Description

      Figure 2.2 Perceptions of Black vs. White Opportunities for Jobs, Housing, and Education

      Source: Jeffery M. Jones (15 July 2016), “Americans’ Optimism About Blacks’ Opportunities Wanes.” Gallup. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/193697/americans-optimism-blacks-opportunities-wanes.aspx.

      Of particular importance to recent work in this area is the idea of intersectionality (Collins and Bilge 2016), which points to the fact that people are affected, often adversely, not only by their race but also by their gender, sexual orientation, class, age, and global location. The confluence, or intersection, of these various statuses and the inequality and oppression associated with combinations of them are what matter most. Not only are we unable to deal with race, gender, class, and so on separately; we also cannot gain an understanding of oppression by simply adding them together. For example, a poor black female lesbian faces a complex of problems different from, and perhaps more difficult to deal with, than the problems faced by a poor person or a black person or a woman or a lesbian.

      Ask Yourself

      Is your life affected by intersectionality? How many different statuses do you hold, and to which social and cultural groups do you belong?

      Postmodern Theory

      Postmodern theory has many elements that fit well under the heading of critical theory, although there is more to it than critique. The term postmodern is used in various ways in relation to social theory. Postmodernity, for instance, is the state of society beyond the “modern era,” which was the era analyzed by the classical social theorists. Among the characteristics of the modern world is rationality, as discussed in Weber’s work. The postmodern world is less rational, nonrational, or even irrational. For example, while in the modern world groups such as the proletariat can plan in a rational manner to overthrow capitalism, in the postmodern world such changes come about accidentally or are simply fated to occur (Baudrillard [1983] 1990; Kellner 2011). Although modernity is characterized by a highly consistent lifestyle, postmodernity is characterized by eclecticism in what we eat, how we dress, and what sorts of music we listen to (Lyotard [1979] 1984). This eclecticism has been fostered by, among others, the internet, which gives people ready access to many more different things (e.g., news, opinion, fashion, music genres) that were not so easily available in the preinternet age.

      Postmodern theory is a theoretical orientation that is a reaction against modern theory. It refers to a world that has moved СКАЧАТЬ