Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches & Addresses Geological and Geographical. Geikie James

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СКАЧАТЬ circumdenudation, for they are just as much the work of erosion as the flat-topped and pyramidal mountains which have been carved out of horizontal strata. The Scottish Highlands afford us an admirable example of a mountainous region of undulating and often highly-flexed strata, in which the present surface-features are the result of long-continued erosion. As already remarked, this region is one of the oldest land-surfaces in the world. In comparison with it, the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Himalayas are creations of yesterday. The original surface or configuration assumed by the rocks composing our Highland area at the time when these were first crushed and folded into anticlines and synclines had already been demolished at a period inconceivably more remote than the latest grand upheaval of the Alps. Even before the commencement of Old Red Sandstone times, our Archæan, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks had been planed down for thousands of feet, so that the bottom beds of the Old Red Sandstone were deposited upon a gently undulating surface, which cuts across anticlines and synclines alike. In late Silurian and early post-Silurian times the North-west Highlands probably existed as a true mountain-chain, consisting of a series of parallel ranges formed by the folding and reduplication of the strata. The recent observations of my friends, Professor Lapworth and Messrs. Peach and Horne, in Sutherland, have brought to light the evidence of gigantic earth-movements, by which enormous masses of strata have been convoluted and pushed for miles out of place. We see in that region part of a dissected mountain-chain. The mountain-masses which are there exposed to view are the basal or lower portions of enormous sheets of disrupted rock, the upper parts of which have been removed by denudation. In a word, the mountains of Sutherland are mountains of circumdenudation – they have been carved out of elevated masses by the long-continued action of erosion. To prove this, one has only to draw an accurate section across the North-west Highlands, when it becomes apparent that the form or shape of the ground does not correspond or coincide with the convolutions of the strata, and that a thickness of thousands of feet of rock has been denuded away since those strata were folded and fractured. All over the Highlands we meet with similar evidence of enormous denudation. The great masses of granite which appear at the surface in many places are eloquent of the result produced by erosion continued for immeasurable periods of time. Every geologist knows that granite is a rock which could only have been formed and consolidated at great depths. When, therefore, such a rock occurs at the surface, it is evidence beyond all doubt of prodigious erosion. The granite has been laid bare by the removal of the thick rock-masses underneath which it cooled and consolidated.

      A glance at any map of Scotland will show that many river-valleys, and not a few lakes, of the Highlands have a north-east and south-west trend. This trend corresponds to what geologists call the strike of the strata. The rocks of the Highlands have been compressed into a series of folds or anticlines and synclines, which have the direction just stated – namely, north-east and south-west. A careless observer might therefore rashly conclude that these surface-features resembled those of the Jura – in other words, that the long parallel hollows were synclinal troughs, and that the intervening ridges and high grounds were anticlinal arches or saddle-backs. Nothing could be further from the truth. A geological examination of the ground would show that the features in question were everywhere the result of denudation, guided by the petrological character and geological structure of the rocks. Several of the most marked hollows run along the backs of anticlinal axes, while some of the most conspicuous mountains are built up of synclinal or trough-shaped strata. Ben Lawers, and the depression occupied by Loch Tay, are excellent examples; and since that district has recently been mapped in detail by Mr. J. Grant Wilson, of the Geological Survey, I shall give a section to show the relation between the form of the ground and the geological structure of the rocks. This section speaks for itself. Here evidently is a case where “valleys have been exalted and mountains made low.” A well-marked syncline, it will be observed, passes through Ben Lawers, while Loch Tay occupies a depression scooped out of an equally well-defined anticline – a structure which is just the opposite of that which we should expect to find in a true mountain-chain. It will be also noted that Glen-Lyon coincides neither with a syncline nor a fault; it has been eroded along the outcrops of the strata. Many of the north-east and south-west hollows of the Highlands indeed run along the base of what are really great escarpments – a feature which, as we have seen, is constantly met with in every region where the strata “strike” more or less steadily in one direction. In the Highlands the strata are most frequently inclined at considerable angles, so that the escarpments succeed each other more rapidly than would be the case if the strata were less steeply inclined. In no case does any north-east and south-west hollow coincide with a structural cavity. Loch Awe has been cited as an example of a superficial depression formed by the inward dip of the strata on either side. But, as was shown many years ago by my brother, A. Geikie,5 this lake winds across the strike of the strata. Moreover, if it owed its existence to a great synclinal fold, why, he asks, does it not run along the same line as far as the same structure continues? It does not do so: it is not continuous with the synclinal fold, while vertical strata appear in the middle of the lake, where, as my brother remarks, they have clearly no business to be if the sides of the lake are formed by the inward dip of the schists.

      The Great Glen, as I mentioned in the preceding article, coincides with a fracture or dislocation – a line of weakness along which the denuding agents had worked for many ages before the beginning of Old Red Sandstone times; and it is possible that smaller dislocations may yet be detected in other valleys. But in each and every case the valleys as we now see them are valleys of erosion; in each and every case the mountains are mountains of circumdenudation; they project as eminences because the rock-masses which formerly surrounded them have been gradually removed. We have only to protract the outcrops of the denuded strata – to restore their continuations – to form some faint idea of the enormous masses of rock which have been carried away from the surface of the Highland area since the strata were folded and fractured. All this erosion speaks to the lapse of long ages. The mountains of elevation which doubtless at one time existed within the Highland area had already, as we have seen, suffered extreme erosion before the beginning of Old Red Sandstone times, much of the area having been converted into an undulating plateau or plain, which, becoming submerged in part, was gradually overspread by the sedimentary deposits of the succeeding Old Red Sandstone period. Those sediments were doubtless derived in large measure from the denudation of the older rocks of the Highlands, and since they attain in places a thickness of 20,000 feet, and cover many square miles, they help us to realise in some measure the vast erosion the Highland area had sustained before the commencement of the Carboniferous period. Nor must we forget that the Old Red Sandstone formation which borders the Highlands has itself experienced excessive denudation: it formerly had a much greater extension, and doubtless at one time overspread large tracts of the Highlands. Again, we have to remember that during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, and the later Mesozoic and Cainozoic eras, the Highlands probably remained more or less continuously in the condition of land. Bearing this in mind, we need not be surprised that not a vestige of the primeval configuration brought about by the great earth-movements of late Silurian times has been preserved. Indeed, had the Highland area, after the disappearance of the Old Red Sandstone inland seas, remained undisturbed by any movement of elevation or depression, it must long ago have been reduced by sub-aërial erosion to the condition of a low-lying undulating plain. But elevation en masse from time to time took place, and so running water and its numerous allies have been enabled to carry on the work of denudation.

      Thus in the geological history of the Scottish Highlands we may trace the successive phases through which many other elevated tracts have passed. The Scandinavian plateau, and many of the mountains of middle Germany – such, for example, as the Harz, the Erzgebirge, the Thüringer-Wald, etc. – show by their structure that they have undergone similar changes. First we have an epoch of mountain-elevation, when the strata are squeezed and crushed laterally, fractured and shattered – the result being the production of a series of more or less parallel anticlines and synclines, or, in other words, a true mountain-chain. Next we have a prolonged period of erosion, during which running water flows through synclinal troughs, works along the backs of broken and shattered anticlines, and makes its way by joints, gaping cracks, and dislocations, to the low grounds. As time goes on, the varying character of the rocks and the mode of their arrangement begin to tell: the weaker structures are broken up; rock-falls СКАЧАТЬ