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СКАЧАТЬ study which prioritized and ranked the future executable projects. As per the study, 399 hydro schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 106,910 MW were ranked in A, B, and C categories depending upon their inter se attractiveness. During May 2003, Government of India launched 50,000-MW hydro initiative in which preparation of Pre-Feasibility Reports of 162 Projects totaling to 50,000 MW was taken up by CEA through various agencies. The PFRs for all these projects have already been prepared and projects with low tariff (first year tariff less than Rs.2.50/kWh) have been identified for preparation of DPR.

       1.1.6 Geothermal Energy

      As India is a tropical country, heat energy is abundant on our earth’s crust. The energy obtained from the heat of the inner surface of the earth is geothermal energy. It is the unused heat energy stored under the earth’s surface. It is carried to the earth’s surface by steam and water. It can be used for heating and cooling purpose. The temperature gradient on the earth’s surface with respect to the inner area is only used to generate electricity [12].

There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

      1 (i) Dry Steam: Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The steam is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant where it is directed into a turbine/generator unit.

      2 (ii) Flash Steam: Flash steam power plants are the most common and use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C). This very hot water flows up through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable resource.

      3 (iii) Binary Steam: Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225°F–360°F (107°C–182°C). Binary cycle plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.Currently, two types of geothermal resources can be used in binary cycle power plants to generate electricity: enhanced geothermal systems (EGSs) and low-temperature or co-produced resources [13].a) Enhanced Geothermal Systems:EGS provide geothermal power by tapping into the Earth’s deep geothermal resources that are otherwise not economical due to lack of water, location, or rock typeb) Low-Temperature and Co-Produced Resources:Low-temperature and co-produced geothermal resources are typically found at temperatures of 300°F (150°C) or less. Some low-temperature resources can be harnessed to generate electricity using binary cycle technology. Co-produced hot water is a by-product of oil and gas wells in the United States. This hot water is being examined for its potential to produce electricity, helping to lower greenhouse gas emissions and extend the life of oil and gas fields.

      1.1.6.1 Geothermal Provinces of India

      In India, nearly 400 thermal springs occur (Satellites like the IRS-1 have played an important role, through infrared photographs of the ground, in locating geothermal areas. The Puga valley in the Ladakh region has the most promising geothermal field.), distributed in seven geothermal provinces. These provinces include The Himalayas: Sohana: West Coast; Cambay: Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA): Godavari and Mahanadi [14].

      These springs are perennial and their surface temperature range from 37°C to 90°C with a cumulative surface discharge of over 1,000 L/m. The provinces are associated with major rifts or subduction tectonics and registered high heat flow and high geothermal gradient. For example, the heat flow values and thermal gradients of these provinces are 468 mW/m²; 234°C/km (Himalayas); 93 mW/m²; 70°C/km (Cambay); 120–260 mW/m²; 60–90°C/km (SONATA); 129 mW/m²; 59°C/km (West Coast); 104 mW/m²; 60°C/km (Godavari) and 200 mW/m²; 90°C/km (Bakreswar, Bihar).

      The reservoir temperature estimated using the above described geothermometers are 120°C (West Coast), 150°C (Tattapani), and 200°C (Cambay). The depth of the reservoir in these provinces is at a depth of about 1 to 2 km.

      These geothermal systems are liquid dominated and steam dominated systems prevail only in Himalayan and Tattapani geothermal provinces. The issuing temperature of water at Tattapani is 90°C, at Puga (Himalaya) is 98°C, and at Tuwa (Gujarat) is 98°C. The power-generating capacity of these thermal springs is about 10,000 MW (Ravi Shanker, 1996). These are medium enthalpy resources, which can be utilized effectively to generate power using binary cycle method.

      Since majority of these springs are located in rural India, these springs can support small-scale industries in such areas. Dehydrated vegetables and fruits have a potential export market and India being an agricultural country, this industry is best suited for India conditions.

      Map of India showing the geothermal provinces, heat flow values (mW/m²: in italics) and geothermal gradients (°C/km). I: Himalaya; II: Sohana; III: Cambay; IV: SONATA; V: West Coast; VI: Godavari; VII: Mahanadi. M: Mehmadabad; B: Billimora.

All the geothermal provinces of India are located in areas with high heat flow and geothermal gradients. The heat flow and thermal gradient values vary from 75–468 mW/m² and 59–234°C, respectively. Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) profiles were carried out across several geothermal provinces (Son-Narmada-Tapi; West Coast and Cambay) to understand the crustal structure.

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