Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology. Robert Weis

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СКАЧАТЬ is very dissatisfied with her body and feels like she needs to lose at least 15 pounds. Whether we regard George and Maria’s actions as abnormal depends partially on whether their behaviors are atypical of adolescents their age or inconsistent with the environmental demands they face. We need to know something about normal development in adolescents their age to determine if their behavior is atypical and potentially problematic (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2019).

      Developmental psychopathologists also believe that abnormal behavior can shed light on normal child and adolescent development. Youths who clearly show delays in mastering developmental tasks or failures in meeting environmental demands can teach us how development typically proceeds. For example, children with autism show unusual deficits in perceiving and interpreting other people’s social behavior. By studying these deficits, researchers are beginning to understand how the ability to process social information develops in infants and children without this condition (Toth & Manly, 2020).

       Review

       Development is shaped by multiple factors across three broad levels of analysis: biological, psychological, and social–cultural. Development is probabilistic rather than predetermined. Development is also transactional; each factor influences the others over time.

       Developmental psychopathologists view behaviors as either adaptive or maladaptive. Adaptive thoughts, feelings, and actions promote children’s competence.

       Adaptive and maladaptive behaviors can only be understood in the context of the child’s development and environment. A behavior that was adaptive in one situation or in the past might be maladaptive in another situation or at a different time.

      What Affects the Course of Development?

      Developmental Pathways

      As children grow, they face certain developmental tasks or challenges that depend largely on their age and developmental level. Erik Erikson (1963) outlined some of the most important social and emotional tasks facing individuals as they progress from infancy through old age. For example, the primary developmental task facing infants is to establish a sense of trust in a loving and responsive caregiver. Infants must expect their caregivers to be sensitive and responsive to their physical, social, and emotional needs and to see themselves as worthy of receiving this care and attention from others. A primary developmental task of adolescence is to establish a sense of identity. Adolescents must develop a coherent sense of self that links childhood experiences with their goals for adulthood. People usually accomplish this task by trying out different social roles during their teenage years (Table 2.1).

      Developmental psychopathologists use the term developmental pathway to describe the course or trajectory of children’s development (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2019). Developmental tasks present forks in this pathway. The child can either successfully master the developmental task or have problems with its successful resolution. Mastery of developmental tasks leads to competence, placing children on course for optimal development. However, failure to master early developmental tasks can interfere with the development of later skills and abilities.

      Table 2.1

      Images: ©iStockphoto.com/Bigmouse108

      For example, infants who establish a sense of basic trust in caregivers may have greater ability to make and keep friends in later childhood. However, failure to establish a sense of trust in caregivers during infancy may interfere with children’s abilities to develop close peer relationships later in childhood (Handley, Russotti, Rogosch, & Cicchetti, 2020). Similarly, young children who learn to regulate their behavior and emotions may be able to pay attention in school and cope with minor setbacks and disputes with their classmates. However, young children who continue to tantrum or act aggressively when they do not get their way may be ostracized by their peers (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2020). Consider Carter, a boy heading down a problematic developmental pathway.

      We can also think of development as analogous to a building. Our genetic endowment might form the foundation of the building, providing us with our physical attributes, raw neurobiological potentials, and behavioral predispositions. The ground floor might consist of early environmental experiences, such as our prenatal surroundings or the conditions of our gestation and delivery. Subsequent floors might consist of postnatal experiences, such as our nutrition and health care, the relationships we develop with our parents and other caregivers, the quality of our education, and the friends we make in school. The integrity of the upper levels of our “building” is partially determined by the strength of the lower levels. For example, problems with the foundation will place additional challenges on the formation of higher levels. However, especially well-developed higher levels can partially compensate for difficulties in the foundation.

      The building does not exist in a vacuum, however. The context in which the structure is created is also important. Just as temperature, wind, and rain can affect the construction of a building, so, too, can the child’s social–cultural climate affect his development. Social and cultural conditions can promote the child’s psychological integrity: high-quality schools, safe neighborhoods, and communities that protect and value children and families. Other social and cultural factors, such as exposure to poverty and crime, can compromise child development.

      Continuity vs. Change

      Developmental psychopathologists are also interested in predicting the course of development. Some psychological problems tend to be developmentally transient; they rarely persist into adolescence or adulthood. For example, elimination disorders (e.g., bed-wetting and soiling) tend to exist only during early childhood.

      Other disorders show homotypic continuity—that is, they persist from childhood to adolescence or adulthood relatively unchanged. For example, young children with intellectual disabilities or autism will likely continue to experience these conditions as adults. Although the severity of these problems may decrease over time, these children will likely continue to experience problems with cognitive or social functioning, respectively (Maughan & Rutter, 2010).

      Most childhood disorders, however, show heterotypic continuity—that is, children’s symptoms change over time, but their underlying pattern of behavior remains the same. To understand heterotypic continuity, consider Ben, a 6-year-old boy diagnosed with ADHD. Like most young boys with ADHD, Ben’s most salient problem is hyperactivity; he frequently leaves his seat during class, talks with his neighbors, and fidgets with his clothes and belongings. By middle school, however, Ben shows more problems with inattention than hyperactivity. He has difficulty staying focused during class, remembering to complete his homework, and ignoring distractions during exams. As a young adult, Ben continues to experience underlying symptoms of ADHD, but he is most bothered by problems with organization, planning, and prioritizing activities at home and at work. Although Ben’s most immediate symptoms have changed, his underlying problems with attention and inhibition have persisted over time (Barkley, 2016).

      Case Study: Developmental Pathways

      A Pathway to Trouble

      Carter was a 13-year-old boy who was referred to the psychologist at his school because of fighting. Although Carter’s most immediate problem was getting into fights with other boys at lunch and after school, the psychologist knew that Carter’s problems began much earlier. As a preschooler, Carter was physically abused by his mother’s СКАЧАТЬ