Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology. Robert Weis

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СКАЧАТЬ brain structure and functioning, and physical health and development;

      2 Psychological, including children’s thoughts, feelings, and actions; and

      3 Social–cultural, including children’s family, friends, schools, neighborhoods, ethnicity, and cultural background.

      Developmental psychopathologists integrate data from across these three levels to provide the clearest picture of the causes of children’s problems and to find the best way to treat them (Hinshaw & Beauchaine, 2015). They use the term probabilistic epigenesis to describe the way factors on each level interact to shape children’s development over time (Cicchetti, 2016a, 2016b).

      To understand the way each level of analysis influences the others, consider Nina, a child with Down syndrome. As you probably know, Down syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation of the 21st chromosome (Level 1: Biological). This genetic mutation caused Nina’s brain and central nervous system to develop in an atypical fashion. She showed structural irregularities in brain regions important for verbal reasoning, memory, and learning.

      These biological abnormalities, in turn, affected her psychological functioning during early childhood (Level 2: Psychological). Nina’s parents reported delays in her motor abilities, use of language, and self-care skills. In school, she learned to read, write, and count more slowly than other children.

      These psychological characteristics affected the type of care Nina received from parents and teachers (Level 3: Social–Cultural). Nina’s mother was understandably very protective, and her teachers offered Nina extra help in school. Nina’s cognitive functioning also affected her relationships with peers. Nina preferred to play with younger children rather than her classmates. By the time Nina reached junior high school, she was behind her peers academically. However, Nina was able to spend half the school day in a regular sixth-grade classroom, assisted by an aide. She spent the remainder of the day in a special education class. These extra services offered by her school district enabled Nina to begin a part-time job during high school. Nina’s story illustrates the unfolding of development over time. Each level of development affects the one beyond it.

      Developmental epigenesis is also a bidirectional process. Genetic and biological factors certainly affect psychological and social–cultural functioning; however, psychological and social–cultural factors can also determine the effects of genes and biology on development. Many experts use the term transactional to refer to the way factors across levels affect each other over time (Kerig, 2016; Sameroff, 2000).

      To understand the transactional nature of development, consider Anthony, another child with Down syndrome. Anthony’s mother, Anita, was heartbroken when her obstetrician told her that Anthony had this condition (Level 1: Biological). Rather than despair, Anita decided that she was going to maximize her son’s cognitive, social, and behavioral potential by giving him the most enriching early environment that she could provide. Anita spent countless hours talking to Anthony, reading books, listening to music, playing games, and going on outings (Level 3: Social–Cultural).

      Anita also learned to capitalize on Anthony’s strengths. For example, she noticed that Anthony acquired skills best through hands-on learning rather than through verbal instruction. Although Anthony acquired language and daily living skills slowly, Anita had high expectations for him. She remained patient and tried to provide structure and help so that Anthony might learn these skills independently. Anita enrolled Anthony in a special needs preschool and was heavily involved throughout his education (Level 2: Psychological). Anthony developed good language and daily living skills and was able to graduate with his high school class. Today, Anthony is employed full-time in the mailroom of a large company, lives independently, and enjoys bowling and fishing with his friends.

      Understanding and predicting child development is difficult for two reasons. First, development is influenced by many factors across multiple levels: genes, biology, psychology, family, and society. Second, these factors are constantly changing over time, each interacting with the others. Consequently, no single factor determines children’s outcomes. Instead, the unfolding of development is probabilistic; a person’s developmental outcome can vary depending on the interplay of many biological, psychological, and social–cultural factors. Developmental psychopathologists use the term probabilistic to refer to the complex transaction of factors that shape development over time (Gottlieb & Willoughby, 2006; Rutter & Sroufe, 2000).

      Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Behavior

      From the perspective of developmental psychopathology, normal and abnormal behavior is determined by the degree to which it promotes children’s competence. Adaptive behavior allows children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence over time and meet the changing demands of their environment. Examples of adaptive behavior include toddlers learning to understand other people’s emotional states, school-age children learning to think before acting, and adolescents using moral reasoning to solve interpersonal problems. These behaviors are adaptive because they allow children to understand and interact with their environment in an effective and flexible way (Cicchetti, 2019).

      Maladaptive behavior interferes with children’s social, emotional, and behavioral competence or does not meet the changing demands of the environment. Examples of maladaptive behaviors include toddlers who do not understand others’ emotional expressions or withdraw from social interactions, school-age children who impulsively hit others when they are angry, and adolescents who mistreat peers. These behaviors are considered maladaptive because they indicate a failure to develop competencies and they interfere with children’s social–emotional well-being (Cicchetti, 2019).

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      Adaptive behavior is determined by the child’s developmental context. Normality and abnormality are dependent on children’s age and level of development (Image 2.2). Consider a 2-year-old boy who refuses to dress in the morning and tantrums when told that he cannot have cookies for breakfast. Although these oppositional behaviors cause parents grief, they are usually not considered abnormal in 2-year-olds. In fact, stubbornness can reflect toddlers’ developmentally appropriate bids for autonomy. However, the same behaviors shown by a 6-year-old child would likely be considered maladaptive and abnormal. In the context of his age and level of development, these behaviors likely reflect problems balancing needs for autonomy with respect for parental authority (Burt, Coatsworth, & Masten, 2016).

      Adaptive behavior is also determined by the child’s environmental context. Consider Xavier, a 13-year-old boy who has a history of running away from home, staying out all night, skipping school, and earning low grades. Clearly, Xavier’s behavior is problematic. However, if we discover that Xavier is also experiencing physical abuse at home, we might see how his problematic behavior reflects an attempt to cope with this psychosocial stressor. Specifically, Xavier runs away and stays out all night to escape physical maltreatment. Furthermore, he likely has difficulty completing assignments and attending school because of his stressful home environment. Xavier’s actions are best understood in terms of his environmental context.

      Developmental psychopathologists view abnormal development as a deviation from normality. Our ability to recognize, understand, and treat childhood disorders depends on our knowledge of normal child development. Consider George, a 16-year-old boy who begins drinking with friends at parties. Approximately once every month for the past 6 months, George has consumed several alcoholic beverages while partying with friends. He drinks in order to have fun and has never gotten into trouble or put himself in dangerous situations while intoxicated. Consider also Maria, a 14-year-old girl who is dieting to lose weight. Although Maria’s weight СКАЧАТЬ