The Handy Psychology Answer Book. Lisa J. Cohen

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      Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov stumbled upon the principles of classical conditioning while studying digestive processes in dogs. Unintentionally, he taught dogs to salivate at cues that signaled the arrival of food. The dogs learned to associate the ring of a bell (and other sounds) with the food that typically followed it.

      What famous experiment did Ivan Pavlov perform using dogs?

      Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was a Russian scientist who was originally interested in the digestive processes of animals. When trying to study how dogs digest food, he noticed the animals’ tendency to salivate at the sound or sight of their keeper shortly before feeding time. In other words, they salivated in the absence of actual food. Initially, this phenomenon was a nuisance, interfering with his study of digestion, but later it became the focus of his research. Pavlov’s studies provided the basis of the theory of classical conditioning, also known as associative or “Pavlovian” conditioning.

      Where does emotion fit in?

      Although strict behaviorists avoided all emotional terms, learning theory fully depends on emotion. In Thorndike’s Law of Effect and the theory of operant conditioning that followed, the likelihood that a behavior will be increased or decreased depends on its emotional impact. Behavior is increased when it elicits positive emotion (reward) and reduced when it elicits negative emotion (punishment). While it is more difficult to speak of emotions in animals, modern scientists assume that the simple emotional processes involved in learning theory—that is, forms of pleasure and pain—apply to both animals and humans.

      What is associative or classical conditioning?

      Associative conditioning, also called classical or Pavlovian conditioning, refers to a form of learning in which a person or animal is conditioned to respond in a particular way to a specific stimulus. If a neutral stimulus is paired with an emotionally meaningful one, then the neutral stimulus will become associated with the second stimulus and elicit the same response. For example, if a child learns to associate a particular perfume with a beloved grandmother, the child will develop a positive response to the perfume. In contrast, if the child learns to associate going to the doctor with getting a painful shot, then the child will learn to fear the doctor. This basic concept is used in child rearing, advertising, political campaigns, the treatment of addictions, and much of animal training.

      What is the difference between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimulus?

      The unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that elicits a natural and unlearned response. For example, the child does not have to learn to feel pain from the shot. A dog does not have to learn to feel pleasure when fed. The conditioned stimulus is a formerly neutral stimulus that now elicits a response through its pairing with the unconditioned stimulus. The perfume that the child associates with his grandmother is a conditioned stimulus. The doctor that the child associates with the shot is also a conditioned stimulus.

      What is the difference between the conditioned and the unconditioned response?

      The unconditioned response is the innate, unlearned response, for example loving the grandmother or feeling pain at the shot. The conditioned response is the learned response, for example loving the grandmother’s perfume or fearing the doctor.

      How is classical conditioning relevant to everyday life?

      Classical conditioning pervades everyday life. When we develop food aversions (e.g., a hatred of fish), phobias (e.g., a fear of dogs), or positive associations (an association of Paris with a romantic vacation), our behavior reflects classical conditioning. It is therefore no accident that so many advertising campaigns hire young, beautiful, and skimpily clad models. The advertisers want consumers to associate their product—be it a washing machine, paper clip, or automobile—with youth, beauty, and sex.

      How is classical conditioning relevant to animal behavior?

      As (non-human) animals lack higher cognitive abilities, such as complex reasoning, symbolic thought, or language, associative conditioning is a primary way that animals learn. Does your cat love to sit on the couch and purr? Does she associate the couch with affection and attention? Does your dog start to bark and wag his tail when you put on your shoes? Does he associate your shoes with his walk?

      What is operant conditioning?

      In operant conditioning, pioneered by B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), behavior is influenced less by the stimulus with which it is associated than by the effect of that behavior. Operant conditioning builds on Thorndike’s Law of Effect. If the effect of the behavior is positive, then it is reinforced, and the behavior is more likely to recur. If the effect of the behavior is negative, then it is punished and therefore less likely to be repeated.

      Who is Little Albert?

      Starting in 1920, John B. Watson conducted a series of experiments on a baby named Albert B. to investigate classical conditioning in human beings. While these experiments successfully support the principles of conditioned learning, Watson was chillingly insensitive to the emotional impact of his research methods on the baby.

      When Albert was about nine months old, he was exposed to a series of white fuzzy items, including a white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, and masks with and without white cotton hair. The presence of the rat was then paired with a loud noise created by banging a hammer against a steel pipe. This was repeated several times until little Albert grew terrified at the mere sight of the rat. Later experiments showed that Albert’s fearful reactions had generalized to other fuzzy white items, including a rabbit, dog, and Santa Claus mask. This generalized fear was still present several months after the original experiment.

      Today review committees are required in all research institutions in order to protect the rights of human research subjects.

      What are reinforcers?

      Reinforcers СКАЧАТЬ