Empire by Collaboration. Robert Michael Morrissey

Чтение книги онлайн.

СКАЧАТЬ Nikit8enan, ainghi kit8enanga nina Hunter who kills many beasts one by one 229 Matarichita8i Hunt with different villages 257 Nimatchiki8e Hunt with everybody 259 Ninatas8a Hunt animals that I make flee by setting fire 327 Nat8nama8i8ni Hunt for a day 329 8anapakite8i Burned prairie 368 8araten8i Prairie surrounded by woods 373 8e8entire8i Fire comes from two sides and joins 381 Nipacas8aki Hunt with fire 411 Pess8e8aki Fire in the prairies to hunt a deer 461 Nipitat8nama8i Hunt for one day or two 478 Nipitcheracha Hunt for several days 478 P8kicaki8aki irenans8ki Bison are surrounded in the daytime and flee 484 P8n8maninghigi aie8aki pintiki8aki Bison surrounded where they are expected 488 Niressig8 Fire in the trees to make the animal come out 507 Tchecam8cakita Hunt with others 548 Tchic8kite8i Prairie all burned 554 Tchiram8si8aki Fire in the prairie 559

      Source: Jacques Gravier, Kaskaskia-to-French Dictionary, ca. 1690, manuscript held at Watkinson Library Special Collections, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.

      Unlike woodlands hunters, the Illinois had given themselves over to a resource that required organization and scale. This probably made the prairie bison hunters into a more unified and cohesive society than was typical of Algonquians and pre-bison Oneota. The new lifeway may have given rise to a more hierarchical social structure, and it certainly required larger villages, especially in the summer and winter when the Illinois came together for the bison hunt. Whereas other Algonquians broke up into small villages to chase animals like deer and bears, the Illinois could stay together in their large groups throughout the year.⁶³

      The bison economy also fostered another change, which was a new gendered division of labor. Contact-era evidence suggests that women processed the hides, smoked the meat, and made bison products like wool and robes.⁶⁴ Moreover, since each male-headed household in Illinois “owned” the specific meat that its male hunters killed, and since each family processed their meat separately, this created an incentive for each man to have lots of women in his household.⁶⁵ The bison economy may have helped encourage the polygamous households that were common among the Illinois at the time of contact, just like among bison hunters on the plains.⁶⁶

      Given the huge size of bison herds in the region, bison hunting made the Illinois prosperous. Herds spread across the prairies of Illinois in the 1600s and remained large through the colonial period.⁶⁷ Marquette counted herds of 400 in 1673, and others counted herds in the thousands.⁶⁸ Typical hunts produced 200 animals or more, according to the seventeenth-century sources, and the Illinois were taking at least 2,000 bison annually by the early 1700s.⁶⁹ Bison provided the largest source of meat to the Illinois and likely a good portion of their overall calories.⁷⁰ It seems likely that this made them healthier than other Algonquians of their era and better-off than pre-bison Oneota as well. At contact Marquette was impressed by the prosperity of the Illinois people. As he wrote, “They raise Indian corn, which they have in great abundance, have squashes as large as those of France, and have a great many roots and fruits. There is fine hunting there of Wild Cattle, Bears, Stags, Turkeys, Ducks, Bustards, Pigeons, and Cranes. The people quit their Village sometime in the year, to go all together to the places where the animals are killed, and better to resist the enemy who come to attack them.”⁷¹

      The bison also became central to the Illinois’s material culture. Liette noted that the Illinois used skins for clothing, shelter, and other purposes. They made tools out of the animals’ bones. Marquette noted that bison was the main medium for the Illinois’s artistic traditions, and on several occasions during his travels he remarked on belts, garters, and accessories that were given as gifts or worn by prominent people among the Illinois. These included the scarves, made from bison hair, that distinguished the “captains” of the Illinois, “made, with considerable skill, from the hair of bears and wild cattle.”⁷² Indeed, the new animal gave the Illinois a distinctly different material culture from that of many of their Algonquian neighbors. While Indians in the region of Illinois had poor beaver resources, Marquette noted that “Their wealth consists in the skins of wild cattle.”⁷³

Figure 3. “Chasse Génèrale au Boeuf, mais à pied,” published in Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz’s Histoire de Louisiane (Paris, 1758). Le Page du Pratz’s depiction of non-equestrian bison hunting resembles many of the descriptions from eyewitnesses to the Illinois in the contact period.

      Courtesy of the Rare Book and Manuscript Library of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

      Bison hide painting became an important artistic expression in the Illinois culture. As Marquette noted, “[Bison hair] … falls off in Summer, and the skin becomes as soft as Velvet. At that season, the savages use the hides for making fine Robes, which they paint in various Colors.”⁷⁴ It is intriguing to speculate about how the bison became central to the Illinois culture as they migrated, perhaps even helping create a new kind of identity. But this was not simply a new culture but something more complex. It was a blended culture, a synthesis of Oneota and Algonquian. To the point, consider the bird motif on the hide robe that Marquette supposedly brought back from Illinois in 1673. Evidence suggests that this was a very important motif in Oneota culture, perhaps even associated with Oneota ethnogenesis centuries before the Illinois’s arrival. According to one scholar, birds—and particularly hawks—were at the center of Oneota ritual tradition and identity.⁷⁵ The hawk motif on Marquette’s hide robe closely resembles a similar decoration on pottery unearthed in an Oneota site in Polk County, Iowa.⁷⁶ It is also similar to the thunderbird pictogram used to represent the Winnebago—descendants of the Oneota—at the 1701

      Great Peace treaty at Montreal, which ended the Beaver Wars. Of course it is impossible to be conclusive about what these similarities really suggest, if anything. But it does seem possible to read this rare pre-contact Illinois material culture as a reflection of how the Illinois newcomers assimilated and integrated the culture of the Natives in the region and incorporated it with their own identity in the seventeenth century, together with the bison material itself.⁷⁷ The Illinois had colonized СКАЧАТЬ