Orchestrating Europe (Text Only). Keith Middlemas

Чтение книги онлайн.

СКАЧАТЬ level by the SPD/FDP coalition, based on corporatist understandings with unions to cushion austerity measures.

      Meanwhile, on the diplomatic front, and despite the fall of Willi Brandt in 1974, the ostpolitik survived under Helmut Schmidt, insuring stable relations with East Germany as well the Soviet Union, the USA and France. The Franco-German entente remained in place, since all three German parties accepted westpolitik as the only way to balance that in the East.

      In France, after Pompidou’s death, despite the Gaullists’ preference for Chirac (RPR) rather than the UDF leader Giscard d’Estaing, it was the latter who succeeded as presidential candidate against the socialist challenge of François Mitterrand, in spring 1974. Giscard’s government held to the 6th plan, hoping to sustain both planned growth and industrial restructuring during the emergency. But being a liberal by inclination, Giscard also wished to diminish the Gaullist emphasis on state direction, while deflating the economy and reducing France’s dependence on external sources of energy. This was a policy which required heavy investment in civil nuclear development, yet which, for fear of a recurrence of the 1968 disorders, proceeded via monetary means rather than by direct wage cutting. It led first to negative growth, then, in 1975, to reflation, and ultimately to a 38 billion franc budget deficit, together with high unemployment accompanied by a weak currency.

      In 1976, Giscard replaced Chirac with Raymond Barre (a former Commissioner) as prime minister, who had the more robust aim of cutting feather-bedded state industries down in size, reducing wages, and liberalizing prices. After strikes and much industrial conflict, the Plan Barre achieved surprisingly good results, notably with the rationalizing of steel production into two massive new holdings, Usinor and Sacilor.

      In contrast with France, Italy, which had tried to avoid deflation, experienced 26% inflation in 1974 and suffered a steady fall in the lira. A period of political instability saw the regional electoral success of a much-reformed Communist party in 1976 (though it remained excluded from participating in the governing Christian Democrat-Socialist coalition). A strategy of terror mounted by the extreme left culminated in the murder of Aldo Moro, prime minister, in May 1978, and led to reinforcement of the right and extension of political warfare and corruption into almost every level of administration, finance and industry – with long-term repercussions through to the 1990s. Beset by crisis, with constant recourse to the IMF and West German support, Italy failed either to restore confidence in its institutions or to meet the external criteria for fiscal reform.

      In Britain inflation continued to rise until it reached 23% in 1976,⁸ thanks to a period of drift under a Labour government with only a small majority, preoccupied with instituting its Social Contract with the trades unions and sorting out the aftermath of a massive secondary banking crisis. Only in 1976–8, after Britain’s referendum on EC membership, and under the direction of James Callaghan and Denis Healey, did Britain achieve some control of inflation and a sounder monetary policy, together with an industrial strategy which, by the late 1970s, had had some effect on micro-economic industrial adjustment. For economic and political reasons therefore neither Britain nor Italy took much part in determining EC-wide patterns before 1980.

      Recovery across the Community was correspondingly varied and patchy, depending on the sector and the level of demand, and was nowhere so strong as in Japan or the United States.⁹ Currency fluctuations also fragmented agricultural markets and disrupted the CAP, so that the system of monetary compensation amounts (MCAs) grew ever more complex and had to be bolstered by export levies. Attempts by the Commission to reduce guaranteed prices were rejected by the main beneficiary states, so that MCAs, having been merely a temporary expedient, became an integral part of the CAP in six zones of varying price levels. This in turn caused a rift in the Franco-German entente, since the French government believed MCAs worked to the advantage of countries with stronger currencies.

      Increased complexity reflected an institutional crisis. The oil shock and member states’ nationalistic responses produced in Brussels a mood of deep gloom: Ortoli declared that the Community had lost its vision and that its institutions were near collapse. Indeed at the OECD Energy Conference in Washington, in autumn 1975, the EC exposed all its differences, and the UK insisted on a separate seat. At home, members applied individual trade safeguards, many of which the Commission was forced unwillingly to accept. Collectively the EC turned protectionist, imposing a 15% anti-dumping duty on Japanese ball bearings. Of greater significance, it agreed to the Multi-Fibre Agreement’s cartel arrangements on September 1977 in order to keep the EC textile industries alive. There was infighting over fisheries, and a wine war between France and Italy which the Commission had to take to the European Court.

      Whatever the language still used by EC institutions, the reality lay in national defensiveness, absence of a common energy policy, and inability to address new issues collectively. The EC’s outward appearances by 1976–7 had come to depend on the Franco-German understanding represented by Schmidt and Giscard, and on the DM core of the ‘Snake’. It was hardly surprising that, within the wider periphery, EFTA countries went their own ways, Austria for one set of reasons,¹⁰ and Sweden for another. (Norway’s electorate had of course already voted against its government’s entry application in 1972.) Only the two Iberian states and Greece showed signs of wishing to join: all three, unlike the EFTA countries, seemed on balance to be assets of doubtful value.

      Nevertheless, the Community’s level of activity maintained a certain momentum with the Commission’s establishment of its science and technology policy, its social action programme (which included provisions for disabled workers and equal pay for women) in December 1975, and further limited advances in the free movement of goods in the few sectors, such as pharmaceuticals and medical services, that were still profitable. The Regional Fund took off in March 1975, albeit with smaller resources than were originally envisaged, thanks to disagreements between the main payer, West Germany, and Italy, Ireland and (for different reasons relating to budgetary adjustment) Britain. The ECJ handed down several important rulings on transport and demonstrated a clear commitment to integration which put it, in national governments’ eyes, on the same side as the Commission.¹¹ Political cooperation also broadened out after Helsinki into bilateral agreements with Comecon countries and Yugoslavia, and in a continuing commercial dialogue with the Mahgreb countries of North Africa.

      Even these limited gains came about primarily not because the Commission initiated policy but because the Council of Ministers willed it.¹² When the heads of government, jockeyed by the French Presidency, agreed at the Paris Summit in December 1974 to establish the European Council, they went beyond the founding treaties to formalize the existing informal, occasional inter-governmental mode of regulating business, over and above the EC’s existing, and Treaty-based institutions. This Council’s subsequent request to the Commission, Parliament and Coreper to prepare one report on European Union, and to Leo Tindemans, Belgian prime minister, to produce another, together with the agreement by seven states to introduce direct European Parliament elections and to increase the Parliament’s powers, showed how priorities stood. Although the decision for direct elections had been very controversial in France, being referred on grounds of national sovereignty to the Constitutional Council, France had taken the political lead with German acquiescence and Italian support – the latter predicated on the assumption of political influence with France and economic support from Germany.

      Meanwhile, without becoming any more communautaire, or any less hostile to harmonizing laws and taxation, the British won an acceptable (though actually useless) formula on their budget contribution at Dublin in March 1975, an apparent redress which probably helped Harold Wilson’s last government to gain its referendum on retaining EC membership in June, after which Labour MEPs at last took their seats.

      This emphasis on inter-governmental supremacy, as the recession began to lift, indicated that European integration would proceed without fundamental alterations in the balance of power or the patterns of activity set in the mid–1960s. France returned the franc to the ‘Snake’ in July 1975, and at a minor but not unimportant level acquired some support СКАЧАТЬ