Adventures in the Orgasmatron: Wilhelm Reich and the Invention of Sex. Christopher Turner

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      Reich persuaded one woman who was in a sexless marriage to have an affair with a young suitor; he seemed to encourage, or at least condone, others’ sleeping with prostitutes. Reich came increasingly to believe that enabling the patient to achieve orgasm was the measure of successful therapy. The process of analysis had troubled Reich because it had no clearly defined goal, and now he felt he’d found the means to the end of resolving neurosis in the orgasm.

      Though there was considerable resistance to this theory from other analysts, Reich’s ideas would later position him at the fore-front of the group of younger psychoanalysts. As the second generation of therapists sought to redefine the relationship between the erotic demands of an increasingly liberated youth and the repressive moral pressures that constrained them, Reich’s theory of the orgasm became the defining metaphor for their sexual revolt.

      Inducing orgasm to treat hysteria was an ancient cure that went back to the classical Greeks, who thought that an orgasm might reposition the wandering womb from which hysteria took its name. As the historian Rachel Maines has shown in The Technology of Orgasm, “massage to orgasm of female patients was a staple of medical practice among some (but certainly not all) Western physicians from the time of Hippocrates until the 1920s.”³⁵ The treatment, aimed at relieving congestion of the womb, was not without its moral risks; one turn-of-the-century doctor claimed that the task “should be entrusted to those who have ‘clean hands and a pure heart.’ ”³⁶

      In 1878 an electro-mechanical vibrator was used at Paris’s Salpêtrière Hospital to treat female hysterics, which introduced a further degree of clinical distance. That year a male doctor at the institution, Desiré Magloire Bourneville, published a three-volume photographic atlas depicting patients suffering from hysteria and epilepsy that contained photos of women in the throes of mechanically stimulated orgasms. One eighteen-year-old patient referred to as “Th.” in Bourneville’s notes is reported to have cried “Oue! Oue!” as she approached climax, before throwing back her head and rocking her torso violently: “Then her body curves into an arc and holds this position for several seconds,” Bourneville wrote. “One then observes some slight movements of the pelvis . . . she raises herself, lies flat again, utters cries of pleasure, laughs, makes several lubricious movements and sinks down on to the vulva and right hip.”³⁷ During her ecstasy Bourneville made detailed physiological notes from his vantage point as the machine’s operator: “La vulve est humide . . . La secretion vaginale est très abondante.”³⁸ From the 1880s, the vibrator became a widely used tool, an essential piece of equipment in many doctors’ offices and sanatoriums, which gave speed and efficiency to a previously manual process. By the 1920s the device began to appear in the first pornographic films, which discredited it somewhat as a purely medical tool.

      Freud would have been aware of Bourneville’s innovations when he interned at the Salpêtrière in 1885, as well as the other vibrating helmets and shaking chairs Charcot used to calm his hysterical patients. At one evening reception he attended at the hospital, Freud heard Charcot excitedly telling a colleague that hysteria always had a genital origin (“C’est toujours la chose génitale, toujours! Toujours! Toujours!”), explaining that all neuroses could be traced back to the “marriage bed” (as in the particular case under discussion, which involved an impotent husband).³⁹ Freud wrote that he was “almost paralyzed with astonishment” at the time, the idea was so shocking, and he soon repressed Charcot’s never-published observation.⁴⁰

      When Freud returned to Vienna and established his private practice, he was reminded of Charcot’s controversial remark when his colleague Rudolf Chrobak referred a hysterical patient to him who was still a virgin despite having been married for eighteen years. Chrobak commented sarcastically, “We know only too well what the only prescription is for such cases, but we can’t prescribe it. It is: ‘Penis normalis. Dosim repetatur!’ ”⁴¹ At his clinic Freud employed hydrotherapy, electrotherapy, massage, and the Weir-Mitchell rest cure before abandoning these methods in favor of hypnosis. Rachel Maines wonders whether Freud, who claimed a certain expertise when he distinguished the vaginal from the clitoral orgasm (he considered the latter immature and inferior, to the annoyance of many 1960s feminists), ever operated as a “gynaecological masseur.” In Studies on Hysteria Freud wrote of the case of “Elisabeth von R.,” who had an orgasm when he “pressed or pinched” her legs, supposedly to test her response to pain.⁴²

      In a letter dated 1893 to his friend and mentor Wilhelm Fliess, Freud noted that nervous illness was frequently a consequence of an abnormal sex life and speculated about a possible cure for neuroses along free-love lines: “The only alternative would be free sexual intercourse between young men and women. Otherwise the alternatives are masturbation, neurasthenia . . . In the absence of such a solution society seems doomed to fall victim to incurable neuroses.”⁴³ In his first decade of practicing psychoanalysis, Freud continued to maintain that neuroses were caused by enforced abstinence and coitus interruptus (a belief his diaphragm-fitting colleague, Isidor Sadger, evidently still held in the early twenties), which forced the libido to find alternative outlets in hysterical and neurotic behavior. In 1905, even after his relationship with Fliess had disintegrated, Freud continued to maintain that “in a normal vita sexualis no neurosis is possible.”⁴⁴

      Some of Freud’s colleagues, one of them the Austrian doctor Otto Gross, took these ideas to extremes, encouraging people to throw off what he considered to be the out-of-date moral prejudices that caused sickness: “Repress nothing!”⁴⁵ Freud held Gross in high esteem, and thought he had the most original mind among his followers (according to Ernest Jones, who befriended Gross and considered their conversations to have constituted his first analysis, Gross was “the nearest approach to a romantic genius I ever met”), though Gross’s morphine and cocaine addiction made him a paranoid and a particularly wild analyst.⁴⁶ In September 1907, Jung wrote to Freud of Gross’s radical ideas: “Dr. Gross tells me that he puts a quick stop to the transference by turning people into sexual immoralists. He says the transference to the analyst and its persistent fixation are mere monogamy symbols and as such symptomatic of repression. The truly healthy state for the neurotic is sexual immor ality.”⁴⁷ (Jung would treat Gross in Switzerland the following year for his drug addiction.)

      In his paper “ ‘Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness,’ ” published in 1908, Freud criticized the puritanical sexual mores that so often lead to neurosis and sadism, such as enforced monogamy and abstinence. Freud implied that a lack of sex was as degenerative to the species as inbreeding, and that further repressions of the sexual instincts might endanger the very existence of the human race. “I have not gained the impression,” Freud wrote, “that sexual abstinence helps to shape energetic, self-reliant men of action, nor original thinkers, bold pioneers and reformers; far more often it produces ‘good’ weaklings who later become lost in the crowd.”⁴⁸ Freud posed the question: Is civilized sexual morality worth the sacrifice it imposes upon us? It was this fundamental question that Reich took up.

      Reich thought he noticed the same sex-deprived weakness in his patients and, like Gross, celebrated sexual immorality as a cure. Reich followed Freud in believing that a core of dammed-up sexual energy acted СКАЧАТЬ