Counseling the Culturally Diverse. Laura Smith L.

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СКАЧАТЬ verbally or nonverbally. Even more insidious, however, are environmental meta‐communications that are delivered to People of Color and to women. When Melanie notes that the portraits of past presidents of the university were all White men, and that the majority of new faculty were men, she is receiving an unintended environmental meta‐communication: (a) “You and your kind are not welcome here.” (b) “You will not be comfortable here.” (c) “You do not belong here.” (d) “If you choose to stay here, your advancement will be limited. You may not be promoted and tenured.” Students of color often refer to their campus climates as being alienating and exclusionary. Although many White students, for example, frequently refer to their campuses as inviting, exciting, liberating and validating, environmental micro and macroaggressions make students of color feel like they do not belong.

      Third, counselors need to understand that these everyday slights are not harmless, trivial and insignificant. Microaggressions have a powerful detrimental macro impact upon targeted individuals. Reading Jaylen's story provides us with an idea of how a lifetime of microaggressions can lead to a sense of futility, hopelessness, anger, and distress. He is aware that his racialized experiences are unseen by the majority of White people, that he lives in a world of “anti‐blackness (Woods, Chronister, Grabow, Woods, & Woodlee, 2021),” that his lifeblood or psychic energies are being depleted, that he is experiencing “racial battle fatigue (Martin, 2019),” and that few believe his story (Sue, 2015).

Fourth, Jaylen recounts how when people ask him why he has a “chip” on his shoulder, his attempts to explain are dismissed, or met with disbelief. He goes further by saying “They don't want to hear.” If he is accurate in this observation, it has major implications for counseling and psychotherapy. Storytelling or listening to the stories of our clients is the primary mechanism we use to understand one another's worldviews. Many researchers and scholars have asserted that White Americans have difficulty understanding issues of racism, sexism, and heterosexism from socially devalued group members (Bell, 2003; Jones, 1997; Sue & Spanierman, 2020). Part of the reason is the invisibility of implicit bias, but another one is the anxiety that many feel when conversations touch upon race, racism, whiteness and white privilege (Sue, 2015). As a counselor or therapist, your ability to talk about racism and sexism comfortably and to understand how they affect the life experiences of clients are tantamount to establishing rapport. Discomfort and anxiety about the topic, and not accepting the reality and impact of bias may communicate microaggressions toward diverse clients.

Last, it is important for counselors to avoid “victim blame” and pathologizing the reactions of marginalized group members to prejudice, bias, and discrimination. Microaggressions are especially prone to these two phenomena. In the face of gender microaggressions, Melanie may be seen as overly sensitive, misreading the statements or actions of colleagues, unable to compete in a “man's world,” and that she should simply “toughen up.” In other words, she is defined as the problem, rather than her male colleagues and an institution that is male oriented and dominated. She is the one who needs to change, not the hostile and invalidating surroundings. Likewise, Jaylen's reaction can also be seen in a similar fashion. His reactions to everyday microaggressions may be attributed to also being overly sensitive and even paranoid. When he gets angry, frustrated, and resentful his responses are pathologized; he is the “angry” Black man. Someone once made this statement about schizophrenia. “Is schizophrenia a sick reaction to a healthy situation, or is it a healthy response to a sick one?” How do answers to these questions relate to Jaylen and Melanie?

CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF OPPRESSION: RACISM, SEXISM & HETEROSEXISM

Most people associate racism with blatant and overt acts of discrimination that are epitomized by hate crimes perpetrated by White Supremacist groups such as the Klan, Skinheads, Proud Boys, and Oath Keepers. Studies suggest, however, that more subtle and ambiguous forms of racism are just as detrimental (if not more so) than blatant expressions of bias because they are frequent, sometimes daily occurrences for People of Color (Sue, Capodilupo, et al., 2007; Sue & Spanierman, 2020). A similar statement can be made about sexism. Subtle sexism represents “unequal and unfair treatment of women that is not recognized by many people because it is perceived to be normative, and therefore does not appear unusual” (Swim, Mallett, & Stangor, 2004, p. 117). Whereas overt and covert sexism are intentional, subtle sexism is not deliberate or conscious. An example of subtle sexism is sexist language, such as the use of the pronoun he to convey universal human experience.

In many ways, subtle sexism contains many of the features that define aversive racism, a form of subtle and unintentional racism (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000; Dovidio, Gaertner, & Pearson, 2017). Aversive racism is manifested in individuals who consciously assert egalitarian values but unconsciously hold antiminority feelings; therefore, “aversive racists consciously sympathize with victims of past injustice, support the principles of racial equality, and regard themselves as nonprejudiced. At the same time, however, they possess negative feelings and beliefs about historically disadvantaged groups, which may be unconscious” (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2006, p. 618).

      Inheriting such negative feelings and beliefs about members of marginalized groups (e.g., People of Color, women, LQBTQ populations) is unavoidable and inevitable due to the socialization process in the United States (Sue, Calle, Mendez, Alsaidi, & Glaeser, 2021), where biased attitudes and stereotypes reinforce group hierarchy (Dovidio et al., 2017). Much like aversive racism, subtle sexism devalues women, dismisses their accomplishments, and limits their effectiveness in a variety of social and professional settings (Calogero & Tylka, 2014). Researchers have begun to underscore the importance of these daily experiences of subtle sexism, arguing that they are in fact harmful and need to be recognized as such (Becker & Swim, 2012; Cundiff, Zawadzki, Danube, & Shields, 2014).

Researchers have used the templates of modern forms of racism and sexism to better understand the various forms of modern heterosexism (Smith & Shin, 2014; Walls, 2008) and modern homonegativity (Morrison & Morrison, 2002). Heterosexism and antigay harassment have a long history and are currently prevalent in the United States. Studies find the following for LGBTQ persons in the workplace: (a) between 15% and 43% experience discrimination or harassment; (b) 7–41% report verbal or physical abuse or have had their workplace vandalized; and (c) 10–28% have not been promoted because they are gay or transgender (Burns & Krehely, 2011). Antigay harassment can be defined as “verbal or physical behavior that injures, interferes with, or intimidates lesbian women, gay men, and bisexual individuals” (Burn, Kadlec, & Rexler, 2005, p. 24). While antigay harassment includes comments and jokes that convey that LGBTQ individuals are pathological, abnormal, or unwelcome, it can also take more subtle forms (Burn et al., 2005). For example, blatant heterosexism would be calling a lesbian a dyke, whereas subtle heterosexism would be referring to something as gay to convey that it is stupid. For sexual minorities, hearing this remark may result in a vicarious experience of insult and invalidation (Burn et al., 2005; Marzullo & Libman, 2009). It may also encourage individuals to remain closeted, as the environment can be perceived as hostile.

The discriminatory experiences of transgender people have been very rarely studied in psychology (Nadal, Rivera, & Corpus, 2010), yet there is evidence to suggest that the pervasive daily discrimination faced by this population is associated with an elevated risk for suicide (Marzullo & Libman, 2009). One term used to define prejudice against transgender individuals is transphobia, “an emotional disgust toward individuals who do not conform to society's gender expectations” (Hill & Willoughby, 2005, p. 533). There is recent evidence to suggest that the microaggressions experienced by transgender individuals are distinct from those experienced СКАЧАТЬ