The Law of Nations Treated According to the Scientific Method. Christian von Wolff

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      § 61.

      § 293, part 1, Jus Nat.

      § 937, part 4, Jus Nat.

      Since the practice of commerce consists in this, that whatever things are movable or moving, whether they are necessary, useful, or pleasurable, are bought and sold again, and those are engaged in internal commerce who are subject to the same civil power; internal commerce has this advantage, that every one can have those things which are required for the necessity, advantage, and pleasure of life, and since any labours

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      can be purchased from another for money and things are bought and sold for money, internal commerce has this advantage also that the same money is continually transferred from one to another and is turned to the advantage of a very great number.

      There is the greatest advantage in internal commerce, for it is the one means, as far as it goes, by which individuals may be provided with the things they need for the necessity, advantage, and pleasure of life. Experience teaches this fully, so that it seems superfluous to say more.

      § 63. Of the advantage of foreign commerce

      § 60.

      § 61.

      § 937, part 4, Jus Nat.

      Likewise since the practice of commerce consists in this, that whatever things are movable or moving, whether they are necessary, useful, or pleasurable, are bought and sold again, moreover since external commerce is transacted with foreigners, external commerce has this advantage, that the things which are lacking in one nation, but needed for the necessity, advantage, or pleasure of life, can be purchased from another nation, and since things are bought and sold for money, if more things are sold to other nations than are purchased from them, the nation grows in wealth, nay more it can attain to the greatest wealth.

      § 10, part 8, Jus Nat.

      The advantage of foreign commerce is a double one. The one consists in that it procures a sufficiency for life; the other that it increases the wealth of the nation. The former is easily understood; the latter is proved by plain experience through the examples of nations among whom commerce flourishes.

      § 64. Of the obligation of engaging in internal commerce

      § 5, part 8, Jus Nat.

      § 4, part 8, Jus Nat.

      § 62.

      Nations are bound to engage in internal commerce. For since a nation is a multitude of men associated into a state, those who form a nation are bound to each other to gain by their combined powers those things which are required for the necessity, advantage, and pleasure of life. Therefore, since internal commerce has this advantage, that every one can have those things which are required for the necessity, advantage, and pleasure of life, nations are bound to engage in internal commerce.

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      § 4, part 8, Jus Nat.

      § 789, part 3, Jus Nat.

      § 123, part 3, Jus Nat.

      §§ 420 and fol., part 8, Jus Nat.

      There is no reason why you should object that necessity itself demands internal commerce and urges men to engage in it. For it is not enough that compelled by necessity men buy and sell again their property; but it is also required that they do this from a sense of duty, in order that they may not consider their own advantage simply, but likewise that of another, consequently that they may engage in commerce not without equity and justice. But although we have derived the obligation from agreement in the proof, which itself has already been confirmed by the natural obligation of observing agreements, nevertheless the obligation, which comes from an agreement, rests upon the natural obligation of mutual transfers of ownership in things. There is the added consideration, that the ruler both can and ought to promote internal commerce, if he wishes to satisfy his duty, and likewise that he is bound to see to it that nothing which is contrary to equity and justice should be allowed in commerce. It is not merely one thing, therefore, which must be laid down for the ruler with regard to internal commerce.

      § 65. How the wealth of a nation is determined

      § 2.

      § 353, part 4, Jus Nat.

      The wealth of a nation is determined by combining the money of the individuals into one sum. For since a nation is considered as an individual person, the money which belongs to all together combined into one sum is the money of the nation. Therefore, since money itself is not used up, as is self-evident, although one is ever receiving it from another, the amount of it nevertheless is not on this account diminished in the nation, but the quantity of it remains the same. Therefore, since wealth is determined by the amount of extra money, the wealth of a nation also is determined by combining the money of the individuals into one sum.

      Of course the things that belong to the individuals, inasmuch as the individuals together ought to be considered as a single person, belong to the nation. For the nation has nothing except that which of itself belongs to the individuals. Therefore if the question arises as to the money of the entire nation, it is undoubtedly necessary that the money of the individuals combined into one sum be assigned to the nation. Nor is this at variance with common notions, for we all call a nation

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      rich, if it has much money, without consideration as to how it is distributed among individuals; for it is not necessary that individuals be rich, for the nation to be rich, just as the individuals are not learned, if the nation is learned. Hence has arisen the proverb, or at least it is not inaptly transferred here: the poor man is found everywhere.

      § 66. What nation is rich

      § 65.

      § 43.

      Since the wealth of a nation is determined by combining the money of the individuals into one sum, consequently since it matters little how the money is distributed among individuals, the nation is rich in which there are many rich families.

      So the English and the Dutch are reputed rich nations, because among both nations there are many rich families. As long as we look at the nation itself as a nation, or even with respect to other nations, it makes no difference how the money is distributed among the individuals. But it is another proposition, if the individuals, who make up the nation, are considered with reference to each other, with the idea of imposing burdens on them, so that no one may be too heavily loaded. But since money can be stamped out of silver, silver vessels and any other things made of solid silver are on a par with coined money, since in case of necessity, when there is an extraordinary need of a great sum of money, they can be turned into money.

      § 67. What things make a nation rich

      § 65.

      § 63.

      Likewise because a nation is rich which possesses very large amounts of money, since moreover money is increased by the aid of foreign commerce, external commerce can make a nation rich.

      Indeed there is no other reason why maritime nations, as the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the English, the Dutch, have established trade with far away nations, and why other nations imitate them.

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