The Hebrew Bible. David M. Carr

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СКАЧАТЬ joined much of the surrounding world as part of the Roman empire. This is the time when Jesus lived, the early church formed in the wake of his crucifixion by the Romans, and the Christian movement spread across the Mediterranean Sea to cities around the Roman empire. This was also the time of multiple Judean revolts against Roman control that eventually led to the destruction in 70 CE of the Jerusalem temple (destruction of the Second Temple [earlier rebuilt under the Persians]) and the complete destruction of Jewish Jerusalem in 135 CE. Thus the Jewish temple state was completely destroyed. The main form of Jewish life to survive this catastrophe was rabbinic Judaism, which grew out of the scholarship and leadership of the earlier, popular movement of the Pharisees.

Later chapters of this Introduction will give details about these historical periods, correlating each of them with biblical texts. The aim here is to give a sense of how much Israelite history was shaped by relationships with various empires. Though “Israel” (and “Judah”) emerged as recognizable peoples and states during an imperial power vacuum (1200–745 BCE), the books of the Bible were largely written during the periods of imperial domination by Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman empires. We gain a deeper understanding of the Hebrew Bible the more we see how diverse biblical pictures of the “empire of God” were formed in response to domination by these powerful empires in the ancient world.

Multiple Contexts, Multiple Methods

      Reading biblical texts in relation to their original contexts can make many aspects of them come alive, but the reason such texts are read now is that they have remained meaningful to diverse communities in much later contexts. These texts are in the Bible because they have transcended their origins. This Introduction will discuss both aspects of the Bible: its origins in the ancient Near East and its later interpretation by Jewish and Christian communities today. Knowing more about the Bible’s early contexts gives some perspective on contemporary differences in interpretation. The more you know about the antiquity of the Bible, the more you may appreciate both the care and the creativity with which it has been read and reread over time by different communities.

      This can be illustrated through a brief look at how different methods of biblical criticism might look at Israel’s “exodus,” the story of Yahweh’s (see box on p. 31) liberation of the people from Egypt that is now found in the first chapters of the book of Exodus (Exodus 1–15). To start, some scholars try to reconstruct whether and when this exodus actually happened. Such academic study of the history of Israel uses biblical texts as one among multiple sources for the reconstruction of “what probably happened.” So far, the results of such study have been inconclusive. On the one hand, many scholars believe some sort of exodus out of Egypt happened, probably during the centuries just before the emergence of the people of “Israel” as a distinct group in the highlands of Canaan. On the other hand, most academic scholars of the Bible also believe that the written texts of the Bible are so far removed from the events that they describe that they are not useful for precise retelling of what actually happened back then: who said what, how many and who were involved, etc. The biblical texts are not reliable for such details because they have been filtered by centuries of oral retelling and written expansions by later Israelites. Imagine a game of “telephone” where hundreds of people over a period of five hundred years retell a story important to them (e.g. of the exodus from Egypt), each one to different members of the next generation, and then imagine trying to use the end result of this complex process for historical analysis. Because biblical texts are so shaped by time, scholars studying the history of Israel attempt to reconstruct what happened through analyzing them and comparing them – where possible – with archaeological records and non‐biblical historical sources.

      The Name of Israel’s God: Yahweh/the LORD

      The name of Israel’s God in Hebrew is Yahweh, but you will not see this name written out in most English translations of the Bible. Instead, most translations have “the LORD” where the Hebrew manuscripts have a strange combination of the consonants for Yahweh (YHWH) and the vowels for the Hebrew word “lord.” Why this combination?

      The consonants are earlier, since the earliest Hebrew Bible manuscripts were written in all consonants. When Jewish scholars started producing manuscripts with vowels, the divine name Yahweh had become so holy that they did not pronounce it out loud (this is still true for many Jews). Therefore, they added the vowels for “lord” in every place where the consonants for Yahweh occurred so that readers would say “lord” rather than the holy name. English translations reflect this combination when they put “lord” in all capital letters (LORD), indicating that this particular “lord” is Yahweh. (Note “Jehovah” is the word that is produced when you simply pronounce the consonants of YHWH with the vowels for the Hebrew word for “lord.”)

      We will be focusing here on the state of the Bible before such prohibitions on pronouncing the divine name existed. So there will be occasions where it will be helpful to refer to Israel’s God by the name Yahweh.

      Historical criticism is a family of historical methods that analyzes how and where the biblical texts (and oral traditions in them) were composed. “Criticism” in this case does not mean that historical critics find fault with the biblical texts that they study, but that they use academically critical analysis to arrive at their conclusions rather than starting on the basis of faith assumptions. Through tradition criticism, for example, biblical scholars attempt to identify early oral traditions standing behind the biblical text. For example, past tradition critics have supposed that the following song of Miriam may be one of the earliest traditions in the Bible to speak of the defeat of the Egyptian army at the Red sea:

      Sing to Yahweh, for he has been victorious

      Horse and rider, he has thrown into the sea.

      (Exod 15:21)

      The next chapter will discuss places where other texts of the Bible, though being later written texts, still reflect the general outlines of earlier oral traditions.

Many scholars, however, focus not on how the Bible was formed, but on what it means and has meant to generations of readers of the Bible. For example, literary criticism has drawn on methods in the study of modern literature to study the plot, characterization, pacing, and shape of biblical texts. Scholars employing such criticism have examined Exodus 1–15 as if it were a novel, looking at how the story is artfully told: how is Moses introduced and characterized? How does this contrast with the characterization of the Egyptians and their leaders? What does the reader expect and learn as the narrative unfolds? Such study of the poetic and narrative dynamics of biblical texts is distinct from study of how such texts have been interpreted by later readers, which is the history of interpretation. Historians of interpretation study how the story of the exodus became central to Judaism and Christianity in different ways. For example, the exodus story is the centerpiece of the Jewish celebration of Passover and is a founding story for the Christian practices of baptism and Eucharist.

      Finally, various forms of ideological criticism analyze ways that the exodus story can be, has been, and should be read in the midst of systematic structures of power. For example, early feminist criticism lifted up the importance of the story of the midwives in the lead‐up to the exodus (Exod 1:15–21), and later feminist critics have raised questions about the male (androcentric) focus of the exodus story and most other parts of the Bible.

      This is just a sampling of some of the different types of academic research that are used to investigate the Bible and its readings. Across this introduction numerous other forms of biblical criticism will be introduced.

Conclusion

      This СКАЧАТЬ