English Literature. William J. Long

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СКАЧАТЬ The people of the Weders wrought a mound,

       High, broad, and to be seen far out at sea.

       In ten days they had built and walled it in

       As the wise thought most worthy; placed in it

       Rings, jewels, other treasures from the hoard.

       They left the riches, golden joy of earls,

       In dust, for earth to hold; where yet it lies,

       Useless as ever. Then about the mound

       The warriors rode, and raised a mournful song

       For their dead king; exalted his brave deeds,

       Holding it fit men honour their liege lord,

       Praise him and love him when his soul is fled.

       Thus the [Geat's] people, sharers of his hearth,

       Mourned their chief's fall, praised him, of kings, of men

       The mildest and the kindest, and to all

       His people gentlest, yearning for their praise. ^[13]

      One is tempted to linger over the details of the magnificent ending: the unselfish heroism of Beowulf, the great prototype of King Alfred; the generous grief of his people, ignoring gold and jewels in the thought of the greater treasure they had lost; the memorial mound on the low cliff, which would cause every returning mariner to steer a straight course to harbor in the remembrance of his dead hero; and the pure poetry which marks every noble line. But the epic is great enough and simple enough to speak for itself. Search the literatures of the world, and you will find no other such picture of a brave man's death.

      History and Meaning of BeowulfConcerning the history of Beowulf a whole library has been written, and scholars still differ too radically for us to express a positive judgment. This much, however, is clear,--that there existed, at the time the poem was composed, various northern legends of Beowa, a half-divine hero, and the monster Grendel. The latter has been interpreted in various ways,--sometimes as a bear, and again as the malaria of the marsh lands. For those interested in symbols the simplest interpretation of these myths is to regard Beowulf's successive fights with the three dragons as the overcoming, first, of the overwhelming danger of the sea, which was beaten back by the dykes; second, the conquering of the sea itself, when men learned to sail upon it; and third, the conflict with the hostile forces of nature, which are overcome at last by man's indomitable will and perseverance.

      All this is purely mythical; but there are historical incidents to reckon with. About the year 520 a certain northern chief, called by the chronicler Chochilaicus (who is generally identified with the Hygelac of the epic), led a huge plundering expedition up the Rhine. After a succession of battles he was overcome by the Franks, but--and now we enter a legendary region once more--not until a gigantic nephew of Hygelac had performed heroic feats of valor, and had saved the remnants of the host by a marvelous feat of swimming. The majority of scholars now hold that these historical events and personages were celebrated in the epic; but some still assert that the events which gave a foundation for Beowulf occurred wholly on English soil, where the poem itself was undoubtedly written.

      Poetical FormThe rhythm of Beowulf and indeed of all our earliest poetry depended upon accent and alliteration; that is, the beginning of two or more words in the same line with the same sound or letter. The lines were made up of two short halves, separated by a pause. No rime was used; but a musical effect was produced by giving each half line two strongly accented syllables. Each full line, therefore, had four accents, three of which (i.e. two in the first half, and one in the second) usually began with the same sound or letter. The musical effect was heightened by the harp with which the gleeman accompanied his singing.. The poetical form will be seen clearly in the following selection from the wonderfully realistic description of the fens haunted by Grendel. It will need only one or two readings aloud to show that many of these strange-looking words are practically the same as those we still use, though many of the vowel sounds were pronounced differently by our ancestors.

      … Hie dygel lond

       Warigeath, wulf-hleothu, windige næssas,

       Frecne fen-gelad, thær fyrgen-stream

       Under næssa genipu nither gewiteth,

       Flod under foldan. Nis thæt feor heonon,

       Mil-gemearces, thaet se mere standeth,

       Ofer thæm hongiath hrinde bearwas

      … They (a) darksome land

       Ward (inhabit), wolf cliffs, windy nesses,

       Frightful fen paths where mountain stream

       Under nesses' mists nether (downward) wanders,

       A flood under earth. It is not far hence,

       By mile measure, that the mere stands,

       Over which hang rimy groves.

Illustration: A PAGE FROM THE MANUSCRIPT OF BEOWULF A PAGE FROM THE MANUSCRIPT OF BEOWULF

      Widsith. The poem "Widsith," the wide goer or wanderer, is in part, at least, probably the oldest in our language. The author and the date of its composition are unknown; but the personal account of the minstrel's life belongs to the time before the Saxons first came to England.^[14] It expresses the wandering life of the gleeman, who goes forth into the world to abide here or there, according as he is rewarded for his singing. From the numerous references to rings and rewards, and from the praise given to generous givers, it would seem that literature as a paying profession began very early in our history, and also that the pay was barely sufficient to hold soul and body together. Of all our modern poets, Goldsmith wandering over Europe paying for his lodging with his songs is most suggestive of this first recorded singer of our race. His last lines read:

      Thus wandering, they who shape songs for men

       Pass over many lands, and tell their need,

       And speak their thanks, and ever, south or north,

       Meet someone skilled in songs and free in gifts,

       Who would be raised among his friends to fame

       And do brave deeds till light and life are gone.

       He who has thus wrought himself praise shall have

       A settled glory underneath the stars. ^[15]

      Deor's Lament. In "Deor" we have another picture of the Saxon scop, or minstrel, not in glad wandering, but in manly sorrow. It seems that the scop's living depended entirely upon his power to please his chief, and that at any time he might be supplanted by a better poet. Deor had this experience, and comforts himself in a grim way by recalling various examples of men who have suffered more than himself. The poem is arranged in strophes, each one telling of some afflicted hero and ending with the same refrain: His sorrow passed away; so will mine. "Deor" is much more poetic than "Widsith," and is the one perfect lyric^[16] of the Anglo-Saxon period.

      Weland for a woman knew too well exile.

       Strong of soul that earl, sorrow sharp he bore;

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