Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology. Robert Weis

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СКАЧАТЬ information in memory, and apply information when necessary. Everyday tasks that require working memory include remembering someone’s telephone number and solving math problems in one’s head.

      Processing speed reflects the capacity to scan visual information, to make quick and accurate decisions, and to rapidly implement one’s decisions. Tasks that require processing speed include scanning a supermarket aisle for a specific product or engaging in activities that require matching and sorting.

      Psychologists examine the child’s score on each index and note areas of relative strength and weakness. For example, a child might show an FSIQ within the average range, but his verbal comprehension score might be much lower than his perceptual and visual–spatial reasoning scores. The psychologist might predict that the child will have difficulty with traditional verbal instruction in school. He might recommend that teachers use visual demonstrations and hands-on practice to help the child learn (Weiss, Saklofske, Holdnack, & Prifitera, 2020).

      Intelligence test scores fall on the normal distribution, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 (Figure 4.2). The distribution of test scores in the general population is bell shaped, with most people earning scores relatively close to 100 and fewer people earning scores at the extremes. Approximately 95% of people earn scores within two standard deviations from the mean (e.g., IQ = 70–130). The remaining 5% earn scores at the extremes. Approximately 2.2% have scores less than 70, and they may qualify for the diagnosis of intellectual disability. Approximately 2.2% earn scores greater than 130, indicative of extremely high intellectual functioning, which some school districts consider “gifted” (Cohen, Swerdlik, & Sturman, 2013).

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      Figure 4.2 ■ The Normal Distribution or “Bell-Shaped Curve”

      Note: Sara’s intelligence and academic achievement scores were within the average range indicating no cognitive problems.

      Image courtesy of Wikipedia Commons

      Academic Achievement

      Academic achievement refers to the knowledge and academic skills that children learn through formal and informal educational experiences. Some clinicians distinguish between tests of intelligence, which measure a person’s intellectual ability or capacity to learn, and tests of achievement, which measure information that the person has already learned and retained (Flanagan & Alfonso, 2017).

      Tests of academic achievement generally measure three broad skills: reading, math, and written expression. These three areas reflect the main types of learning disabilities recognized by public schools. Some tests assess a fourth dimension of academic functioning, oral language, which reflects the child’s listening and speaking skills (Katz & Brown, 2020).

      The Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ-IV; Schrank et al., 2014) are the most widely used, comprehensive tests of academic achievement. The WJ-IV assesses academic achievement in reading, math, and written language. Within each domain, psychologists can assess children’s basic skills, fluency (i.e., speed and accuracy), and advanced applications. For example, children’s math skills can be assessed by asking them to calculate math problems (i.e., basic skills), to solve as many simple math problems as possible in a short period of time (i.e., math fluency), or to correctly answer increasingly more difficult math story problems (i.e., applied problem-solving).

      The WJ-IV yields standardized scores on each of the three achievement domains with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. Scores more than one standard deviation below the mean (i.e., <85) can indicate delays in a particular area of achievement, and scores more than 1.5 standard deviations below the mean (i.e., <78) might indicate a learning disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Usually, clinicians examine children’s intelligence and achievement scores together to obtain a more complete picture of children’s strengths and weaknesses (Benisz et al., 2018).

      On the WISC–V, Sara earned a FSIQ of 104, which is squarely in the average range. Her scores placed her at the 60th percentile, which means her overall abilities exceed 60% of children her age. She showed a relative strength in verbal comprehension and a relative weakness in fluid reasoning; however, all of her scores fell within normal limits. On the WJ-IV, Sara’s reading and math scores were 94, also in the average range. Her scores placed her at the 35th percentile. Altogether, her scores were average and suggested that her school refusal is not due to a cognitive problem or learning disability.

       Review

       Intelligence reflects children’s ability to adapt to their environments, to solve problems, and to learn and apply information accurately and efficiently. The WISC–V yields a FSIQ and measures of (1) verbal comprehension, (2) fluid reasoning, (3) visual–spatial reasoning, (4) working memory, and (5) processing speed.

       Academic achievement refers to knowledge and skills that children learn through formal and informal educational experiences. The WJ-IV yields achievement scores in reading, math, and written language.

       Scores on IQ and achievement tests are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.

      How Do Psychologists Assess Children’s Personality and Social–Emotional Functioning?

      Personality Testing

      Personality refers to a person’s relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions. Because children are in a stage of life characterized by development in all three domains, psychologists are reluctant to make definitive statements regarding children’s personality. Instead, clinicians often seek to understand children’s functioning in terms of thoughts, feelings, and actions in the context of their physical maturation, developmental tasks, and ever-changing environment (Butcher, 2019).

      The most frequently used self-report measure of personality in older adolescents and adults is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Despite its name, the MMPI is better viewed as a test of psychopathology and social–emotional functioning than personality per se. The original MMPI consists of true/false items that assess several domains of functioning. The most recent version of the MMPI, developed specifically for adolescents, is the MMPI-Adolescent-Restructured Form (MMPI-A-RF; Archer, 2016). This self-report test assesses three higher-order domains of adolescents’ functioning: (1) emotional/internalizing dysfunction, (2) behavioral/externalizing dysfunction, and (3) thought dysfunction. Furthermore, it generates a personality profile on nine restructured clinical (RC) scales based on adolescents’ self-reports:

      Demoralization (RCd): dissatisfaction, hopelessness, self-doubt

      Somatic Complaints (RC1): physical complaints such as headaches, stomachaches, and nausea

      Low Positive Emotions (RC2): depression, lack of pleasure in life

      Cynicism (RC3): beliefs in the general badness or selfishness of others

      Antisocial Behavior (RC4): conduct and substance use problems

      Ideas of Persecution (RC6): suspiciousness or mistrust of others

      Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7): anxiety, irritability, feelings of vulnerability

      Aberrant Experiences (RC8): unusual perceptions СКАЧАТЬ