Astrobiology. Charles S. Cockell

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СКАЧАТЬ A very simplified depiction of the structure of a typical atom sh...Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram of the three isotopes of carbon. The number of ...Figure 3.3 A diagram showing the second shell in an atom and the nomenclatur...Figure 3.4 The structure of NaCl showing the alternating sodium and chloride...Figure 3.5 A typical protein. The colored ribbons and lines depict the chain...Figure 3.6 An ionic bond in a protein formed between two amino acids, the po...Figure 3.7 The covalent bond in the hydrogen molecule. The two electrons are...Figure 3.8 As well as holding atoms together in molecules, covalent bonds li...Figure 3.9 An enhanced number of covalent bonds in proteins is used in some ...Figure 3.10 Metallic bonding showing a “sea” of delocalized electrons around...Figure 3.11 The dipoles of two HCl molecules involved in Keesom interactions...Figure 3.12 An induced dipole in the otherwise uncharged neon is an example ...Figure 3.13 Charge imbalance (exaggerated here) around an atom results in a ...Figure 3.14 Looking at van der Waals forces in action. A gecko attached to a...Figure 3.15 Hydrogen bonding in water ice. The dotted lines show the hydroge...Figure 3.16 Hydrogen bonding in the molecule DNA. (a) The dotted lines in th...Figure 3.17 A phase diagram for water. The axes are not drawn to a fixed sca...Figure 3.18 Ice exposed by the robotic scoop at the Phoenix landing site in ...Figure 3.19 A simple schematic of a phase diagram for a “typical.” substance...Figure 3.20 The structure of plasma compared to other states of matter.Figure 3.21 Electron and neutron degenerate matter. In electron degenerate m...Figure 3.22 A hypothetical internal structure of a neutron star.Figure 3.23 A photograph of a black hole. The supermassive black hole is at ...Figure 3.24 The wavelength and frequency of different types of electromagnet...Figure 3.25 The origin of emission and absorption spectra. (a) Energy levels...

      4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The six ubiquitous elements of life, CHNOPS. The van der Waals ra...Figure 4.2 The organic molecule glycine, the simplest amino acid.Figure 4.3 The 20 common amino acids found in life. The figure shows the dif...Figure 4.4 Amino acids are zwitterions. At cellular pH, they have the struct...Figure 4.5 The formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids. This deh...Figure 4.6 Chirality illustrated with hands and the generic structure for am...Figure 4.7 Chiral molecules rotate polarized light in particular directions....Figure 4.8 Different chiralities of life? Gertie the aardvark is a rescued a...Figure 4.9 The molecular structure of the sugars: glucose, fructose, and rib...Figure 4.10 Glycosidic bonds allow sugar molecules to be linked together. In...Figure 4.11 1,4 Glycosidic links between glucose molecules can occur between...Figure 4.12 The molecular structure of some lipids. Free fatty acids are fou...Figure 4.13 The structure of DNA and its building blocks. (a) The structure ...Figure 4.14 The structure of RNA. (a) The schematic structure and bases of a...Figure 4.15 Water dissolves a range of substances, including salts, sugars, ...Figure 4.16 The wood frog (Lithobates sylvatica). The frog can tolerate free...Figure 4.17 Silicon can form extraordinarily complex structures, such as the...Figure 4.18 Silicate minerals. A variety of silicate structures formed when ...Figure 4.19 Hybrid silicon–carbon chemistries in life? Silanes can include h...Figure 4.20 Chemistry in alien solvents. Different functional groups, but an...

      5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Early microbiology. (a) Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, discoverer of mi...Figure 5.2 Leeuwenhoek's diagrams in the 1670s showing the first drawing of ...Figure 5.3 The wide variety of prokaryote shapes as seen under a microscope....Figure 5.4 Amphiphilic molecules such as phospholipids that make up some cel...Figure 5.5 A simplified diagram showing the structure of a lipid bilayer tha...Figure 5.6 Gram-negative and Gram-positive cell membranes.Figure 5.7 A typical structure of peptidoglycan. The pentaglycine cross-link...Figure 5.8 The structure of archaeal cell membrane lipids compared to bacter...Figure 5.9 The transcription of DNA into mRNA.Figure 5.10 The translation of the genetic code. The protein synthesis appar...Figure 5.11 The structure of t-RNA. The amino acid is attached at the top of...Figure 5.12 The table of codons of mRNA corresponding to amino acids. The am...Figure 5.13 A summary of the two steps in reading from DNA to RNA to protein...Figure 5.14 The replication of DNA. The figure shows some of the diversity o...Figure 5.15 Plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA. They can be introduce...Figure 5.16 A typical plant eukaryotic cell with some of its components. The...Figure 5.17 A schematic illustration of the concept of endosymbiosis. Chloro...Figure 5.18 The process of mitosis or “binary fission.”Figure 5.19 The process of meiosis.Figure 5.20 The major phases of growth in a population of prokaryotes.Figure 5.21 Microbial movement and flagella. The microbe Salmonella, stained...Figure 5.22 Tumbleweeds move by rolling, but why don't we see macros...Figure 5.23 Microbial movements toward nutrients and away from toxins. A pos...Figure 5.24 Sketch showing different arrangements of flagella. (a) A single ...Figure 5.25 Slime molds adopt multicellular structures. (a) Slime mold showi...Figure 5.26 The structure of the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV). The diagram sho...

      6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The variety of different metabolisms in life and some example gro...Figure 6.2 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), its structure, and cycle in the cel...Figure 6.3 A schematic example of an electron transport chain linked to ATP ...Figure 6.4 The ATP synthase (or F-type ATPase) complex. Schematic showing AT...Figure 6.5 A general schematic providing an overall summary of the principle...Figure 6.6 An electron tower showing some examples of half reactions (redox ...Figure 6.7 The structure of acetyl-CoA and two ancient and important biochem...Figure 6.8 A summary of the pathways for the break down and generation of en...Figure 6.9 Pathways for fermentation and just a few of the variety of possib...Figure 6.10 The reductive acetyl-CoA pathway for the fixation of CO2 into or...Figure 6.11 The biological methane cycle. The diagram shows some of the majo...Figure 6.12 White mats of Beggiatoa (center) in the deep oceans. They play a...Figure 6.13 Microbial iron cycling. (a) An environment in Iceland where iron...Figure 6.14 Oxygenic photosynthesis. The reaction for oxygenic photosynthesi...Figure 6.15 The structure of chlorophyll. The side group (shown as x) gives ...Figure 6.16 The “Z” scheme of oxygenic photosynthesis. The details are descr...Figure 6.17 Absorption spectra of some photosynthetic pigments.Figure 6.18 Cyclic phosphorylation in green sulfur bacteria. The electron do...Figure 6.19 Microbial mats in the Yellowstone National Park include the anox...Figure 6.20 The structure of rhodopsin illustrated with a computer model. Th...Figure 6.21 The planetary scale biological nitrogen cycle on Earth. The diag...Figure 6.22 Microbial mats can contain many layers of microbes. A cross-sect...Figure 6.23 Zones established through a microbial mat. Different metabolisms...Figure 6.24 Some examples of predicted Gibbs free energy yields for the Vulc...

      7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 A simplified two-dimensional depiction of the limits of life, the...Figure 7.2 Temperature limits for life. (a) A hydrothermal vent in the Atlan...Figure 7.3 Habitats for psychrophiles. The ice sheet between Qikiqtarjuaq an...Figure 7.4 An example of adaptation to low temperatures. The introduction of...Figure 7.5 Underground astrobiology laboratories. Scientists use a deep unde...Figure 7.6 Samples of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate) with cyanobacteria. ...Figure 7.7 Life at pH extremes. Left: The acidic Rio Tinto, Spain. Right:...Figure 7.8 A light micrograph image of the radiation-resistant Deinococcus r...Figure 7.9 A transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of Cupriavidus met...Figure 7.10 Types of habitats in and on rocks.Figure 7.11 A light micrograph image of Chroococcidiopsis, an extreme radiat...Figure 7.12 Cryptoendolithic microbial communities. (a) Impact-shocked gneis...Figure 7.13 Laboratories in extreme environments. The International Space St...Figure 7.14 The limits of the biosphere. Three-dimensional plots of pH, temp...Figure 7.15 Life in the deep subsurface: a graph showing the logarithmic dec...Figure 7.16 Schematic diagram of a typical bacterial spore. The exact nature...Figure 7.17 The brine shrimp, Artemia salina. An example of an extreme-toler...Figure 7.18 A scanning electron microscope image of a tardigrade (Milnesium ...Figure 7.19 Are there other biospheres (or “biospaces”) in the Universe with...

      8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Victorian naturalist Charles Darwin, photographed at Down House i...Figure 8.2 Using resemblances to classify species. For some large organisms,...Figure 8.3 A phylogenetic tree of life. The diagram shows a variety of group...Figure 8.4 Phylogenetic trees. (a) A phylogenetic tree of some large mammals...Figure 8.5 Some groups in phylogenetic trees recognized by cladistics.Figure 8.6 Analogy or convergent evolution is caused by organisms being expo...Figure 8.7 Transversions and transitions are just two ways in which mutation...Figure 8.8 Using DNA sequences to build phylogenetic trees. (a) A variety of...Figure 8.9 An example phylogenetic tree that is aligned with geological time...Figure 8.10 Advances in phylogenetics. (a) The first depiction of a hypothet...Figure СКАЧАТЬ