Ouidah. Robin Law

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      Notes

      1. The French colony became the independent Republic of Dahomey in 1960, the change of name to Bénin occurring in 1975. The Republic of Bénin should be distinguished from the kingdom of Benin, situated in what is today Nigeria.

      2. In the present work, to avoid confusion, the name Dahomey is used only with reference to the pre-colonial kingdom, the modern territory being referred to as Bénin.

      3. David Eltis & David Richardson, ‘West Africa and the transatlantic slave trade: new evidence of long-run trends’, S&A, 18 (1997), 16–35; David Eltis et al., ‘Slave-trading ports: towards an Atlantic-wide perspective’, in Robin Law & Silke Strickrodt (eds), Ports of the Slave Trade (Stirling, 1999), 12–34.

      4. These figures relate to the period 1650–1870. Perhaps a further 1 million slaves were exported before 1650; the Bight of Benin would have contributed a much smaller proportion of this earlier trade, and Ouidah very little.

      5. Alfred Métraux, Le Vaudou haïtien (Paris, 1958), 22.

      6. Joan Dayan, Haiti, History and the Gods (Berkeley, 1998), 58; for Azili in Ouidah, see Chapter 3.

      7. Barry Clifford, Expedition Whydah (New York, 1999).

      8. Bruce Chatwin, The Viceroy of Ouidah (London, 1980). For de Souza, see below, Chapters 5–6.

      9. For slave trade commemoration in Ouidah, see Thereza A. Singleton, ‘The slave trade remembered on the former Gold and Slave Coasts’, S&A, 20 (1999), 150–69; Roberta Cafuri, ‘Silenzi della memoria: la tratta degli schiavi’, Africa (Rome), 55/2 (2000), 244–60; Robin Law, ‘Memory, oblivion and return in commemoration of the Atlantic slave trade in Ouidah’, Republic of Bénin, in Ralph Austen (ed.), The Atlantic Slave Trade in African and Diaspora Memory (forthcoming, Durham, N.C.). See also the official Bénin government publication, Nouréini Tidjani-Serpos & Patrick Écoutin, Ouidah, La Route des esclaves (English version, Ouidah, The Slave Route) (Cotonou, n.d.); and two local tourist guide-books: Martine de Souza & Mère Jah Evejah, Bienvenue à Ouidah au Bénin/Welcome to Ouidah in Benin (Ouidah, [1998]); Martine de Souza, Regard sur Ouidah/A Bit of History (Ouidah, 2000).

      10. ‘The African Trade’, BBC 2, 1998; ‘The Slave Kingdoms’, episode in the series ‘Into Africa with Henry Louis Gates, Jr’, BBC 2, 1999.

      11. Esp. Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550–1750 (Oxford, 1991).

      12. I.A. Akinjogbin, Dahomey and its Neighbours 1708–1818 (Cambridge, 1967); Edna G. Bay, Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Politics and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey (Charlottesville, 1998); David A. Ross, ‘The autonomous kingdom of Dahomey 1818–1894’ (PhD thesis, University of London, 1967); John Reid, ‘Warrior aristocrats in crisis: the political effects of the transition from the slave trade to palm oil commerce in the nineteenth-century kingdom of Dahomey’ (PhD thesis, University of Stirling, 1986).

      13. For a preliminary treatment, see Robin Law, ‘The origins and evolution of the merchant community in Ouidah’, in Law & Strickrodt, Ports of the Slave Trade, 55–70.

      14. A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 106–7.

      15. J.D.Y. Peel, ‘Urbanization and urban history in West Africa’, JAH, 21 (1980), 269–77.

      16. See David M. Anderson & Richard Rathbone (eds), Africa’s Urban Past (Oxford, 2000). This includes a preliminary treatment of the case of Ouidah: Robin Law, ‘Ouidah: a pre-colonial urban centre in coastal West Africa, 1727–1892’, 85–97.

      17. For this classification, see Alfred Comlan Mondjannagni, Campagnes et villes au sud de la République Populaire du Bénin (Paris, 1977), 295–341; the ‘third generation’ being towns that served as administrative or commercial centres within the colonial system, and the ‘fourth generation’ the unique case of Cotonou as the modern economic and de facto political capital of Bénin. These ‘generations’, it should be stressed, are not to be understood necessarily as distinguishing among different groups of towns, since they may represent successive periods in the history of a single town: for example, Ouidah itself originated as a town of the ‘second generation’ but then developed as a colonial town of the ‘third generation’. The term ‘villes-forts’ seems unfortunate since, as Mondjannagni acknowledges (309–10), the European commercial establishments in them were not necessarily (and for example in Ouidah were not originally) fortified.

      18. E. g. Bernard Bailyn, ‘The idea of Atlantic history’, Itinerario, 20/1 (1996), 38–44.

      19. See John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge, 1992).

      20. Robin Law & Kristin Mann, ‘West Africa in the Atlantic community: the case of the Slave Coast’, WMQ, 56/2 (1999), 307–34; also Robin Law, ‘The port of Ouidah in the Atlantic community’, in Horst Pietschmann (ed.), Atlantic History: History of the Atlantic System 1580–1830 (Göttingen, 2002), 349–64.

      21. E.g. Franklin W. Knight & Peggy K. Liss (eds), Atlantic Port Cities (Princeton, 1991).

      22. See the studies collected in Law & Strickrodt, Ports of the Slave Trade.

      23. Nicoué L. Gayibor, Le Genyi (Lomé, 1990); Sandra E. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast: A History of the Anlo-Ewe (London, 1996). See also Silke Strickrodt, ‘Afro-European trade relations on the western Slave Coast, 16th to 19th centuries’ (PhD thesis, University of Stirling, 2003).

      24. Caroline Sorensen-Gilmour, ‘Badagry 1784–1863’ (PhD thesis, University of Stirling, 1995); Susan M. Hargreaves, ‘The political economy of nineteenth-century Bonny’ (PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 1987); W.E. Wariboko, ‘New Calabar and the forces of change, c. 1850–1945’ (PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 1991); A.J.H. Latham, Old Calabar 1600–1891 (Oxford, 1973); Ralph A. Austen & Jonathan Derrick, Middlemen of the Cameroons Rivers: The Duala and their Hinterland, c. 1600–c. 1960 (Cambridge, 1999).

      25. Harvey Feinberg, Africans and Europeans in West Africa: Elminans and Dutchmen on the Gold Coast during the Eighteenth Century (Philadelphia, 1989).

      26. Austen & Derrick, Middlemen, 1–4.

      27. Feinberg, Africans and Europeans, 1–6, 155–8.

      28. Rosemary Arnold, ‘A port of trade: Whydah on the Guinea Coast’, in Karl Polanyi et al. (eds), Trade and Market in the Early Empires (New York, 1957), 154–76; Karl Polanyi, Dahomey and the Slave Trade (Seattle, 1966), 96–139.

      29. See also the emphasis on pre-colonial antecedents by John Parker, Making the Town: Ga State and Society in Early Colonial Accra (Oxford, 2000), xviii – xix; although the study itself focuses on the period of colonial rule.

      30. On this, this study represents a more optimistic perspective than that of Ralph A. Austen, ‘The slave trade as history and memory: confrontations of slaving voyage documents and communal traditions’, WMQ, 58 (2001), 229–44.

      31. Only the French fort has been the subject of detailed study: Simone Berbain, Le Comptoir français de Juda (Ouidah) au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1942).

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