definitely are one), which means that the national approach among German Jews is limited. None of the dramatic or even desperate moves of the Jewish community is able to eliminate anti-Semitism. Hess points out that enforced or “voluntary” conversion or assimilation combined with emancipation, which Jews have done repeatedly since the Middle Ages with the result of rejecting their Jewishness and consequently, being condemned and expelled from the Diaspora, was unsuccessful as well. According to Hess, the reason for this is fundamental: no transformation connected with religious conversion, changing social behaviors and customs or the external environment will compensate for the racial difference reflected even in the anatomy and physical appearance, which cannot be changed. Hess highlights that a Jew will never change his appearance, and that appearance, as a representative of his different race (even if those different anatomical features are not largely based on real physical characteristics but are the result of imaginary stereotypes), will always make him distinct from a German (Aryan). Hess can see the futility of Jewish efforts to become physically similar to the German majority.20 The Jewish race is “primary,” and whatever it means, neither attempts to change the physical appearance or transformations leading to greater social integration can change this obvious truth. Thus, the author critically approaches the attempts to make “radical” changes within Judaism, since they can only lead to the destruction of the primary value of the Jewish race, expressed both in the religious dimension (e.g. through Messianism) and in the national or historical character of the Jewish ritual with the key idea of chosen people (nation). It is not beneficial for Jews in any way. Such attempts reveal the racial tension, because on the one hand, emancipation and assimilation are the Jewish response to the environment’s antipathy ←27 | 28→or hostility, but they only become intensify and radicalize all the negative effects of antipathy toward Jews, which contributes to reinforcing anti-Semitism on a new basis. Hess is convinced that the only possibility to alleviate anti-Semitism, at least in Germany, is for Jews to preserve their own “type,” their race, with all its consequences. The emphasis on the importance and distinctness of the Jewish type (synonymous to the term “race”) was based on Hess’ short quasi historical and scientific analysis of the category of human types.21 The author identifies the Indo-European (Indo-German) type, which apart from some anatomical characteristics has a high level of social development and in a way, the mentality of “lords,” unlike the Asian type, which is associated with the mentality of “slaves.”22 Despite some evident differences between the Western Diaspora (mostly from Germany) and the Eastern Diaspora, Jews represent one clear type (race).23 Hess also points out that specific and positive features of Jewish community made Jews adapt well to the environment in the history, which to some extent made them resistant to the negative influence of the environment, to the expressions of hostility and anti-Semitism, although he can also see some dangers faced all the time ←28 | 29→and intensifying as a result of social changes (mostly as a result of nationalism). Because of them, Jews may be facing the most serious tasks since the beginning of their “exile.” Hess can see a deadly threat of anti-Semitism, which is so deeply rooted in people that it cannot be eradicated using any argumentation and can even lead to “annihilation” (whatever it means) of the whole Jewish community. Therefore, to save, not only Jews but also the whole mankind, Jews need to engage in activities to reform their “internal” life (i.e. their internal community), aimed at assuming their natural historical role.24 Hess presents his postulate of the Messianic-like religious and political concept, in which the main humanity-saving task is vested in the enlightened Jewish community, which was more generally referred to by a researcher studying the issue of political Messianism, J. L. Talmon, as “the expectation of universal regeneration, which revived people and political movements in the first half of the nineteenth century.”25 According to Hess, Jews will fulfill the restoration/revival role very well, mostly because they have been struggling for centuries with expressions of hatred and aggression in the form of various anti-Jewish acts, and they have managed to retain the core of their own religious and social tradition based on hard practical reality. Hess stresses that Jewish patriotism is completely different from the German one, dominated by the ontological justification and involving discussions between the mutually exclusive approaches of philosophical realism and idealism. Jewish patriotism and sense of nationality have nothing in common either with realism or with idealism. Judaism mostly highlights the tradition of religiously rooted Messianic vision, not based on abstract cosmopolitan categories but rather on the reference to a specific situation of the chosen nation and its role in the salvation mission on the earth. From this perspective, for Hess, religion actually equals Jewish patriotism, allowing Jews to preserve their own humanity and additionally restore the whole mankind in the Messianic humanistic message.26 ←29 | 30→In his view, Judaism is against various visions of spiritual egoism and materialistic individualism, which in a negative sense greatly fuels e.g. the new type of anti-Semitism. Thus, Judaism is free from the antinomy of dualism of spirit and matter, consuming the Christianity and causing tragic consequences. This fact can provide sufficient basis for the right to lead philosophical and national restoration, desired and expected by nations.27
The main message of Hess’ deliberations was the belief in the advent of the Messianic age, in which Jews would play the decisive role. In the beginning of the “Fifth Letter” of Rome and Jerusalem, he reminds that he had already discussed the issue of Messianism in his earlier books.28 The author is aware that Jews have found themselves in a particularly hard historical situation: in turbulent times of social transformations, tensions, and national conflicts. French, German, and Italian people expect clear signs of loyalty from Jews living in their territories. No Jewish hopes for integration as part of emancipation had positive effects, and the very process of emancipation only brought Jews new problems. A new type of anti-Semitism has intensified, driven by stereotypes but also new national content. So as to solve all these problems, a proper diagnosis was necessary. But how to achieve it? Hess can only see one solution to the situation: first of all, Jews must consider themselves as a nation, because only as a nation can they be treated equally to other nations: “As long as the Jew endeavors to deny his nationality, while at the same time he is unable to deny his own individual existence, as long ←30 | 31→as he is unwilling hat he belongs to that unfortunate and persecuted people, his false position must daily become more intolerable. Wherefore the illusion? The European nations have always considered the existence of Jews in their midst as an anomaly. We shall always remain strangers among the nations.”29 Jews must themselves destroy the stereotype that they are unable to make a distinct, powerful nation. The stereotype that Jews regard as their home (lost irreversibly as a result of exile) any place where they feel good in accordance with the principle ubi bene ibi patria – “Homeland is there where life is good” – definitely did not help improve Jews’ situation.
Hess can see the danger of the emancipation process, even if it is treated positively as an attempt from the non-Jewish environment to help Jews in quicker assimilation and improvement of their social status.30 According to Hess, Jews who underwent emancipation at the same time excluded themselves from the community in the national sense, because as they became townspeople, they also made a naturalization attempt, rejecting their roots or even becoming zealous anti-Semites, perceiving the slandering of their former brothers as an opportunity to please their new friends. But the effects of such activities are contrary to intentions, because – as the author observes – the hatred for Jews, in a way natural in the environment (often based on religious fanaticism) and intensified by their own attitude, which in many cases only causes contempt against them, will not be annihilated in any process of emancipation and social integration. ←31 | 32→Hess declares directly: “In spite of enlightenment and emancipation, the Jew in exile who denies his nationality will never earn the respect of the nations among whom he dwells. He may become a naturalized citizen, but he will never be able to convince the gentiles of his total separation from his own nationality.”31 This image cannot be covered by any non-Jewish declarations of a change in the attitude and overcoming the negative attitude to Judaism as such. Hess is convinced that nothing can change in this regard. The beautiful declarations made to Jews in the name of lofty ideas of universal humanity and
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