Without the support of numerous individuals and institutions, this study could never have been completed; their help is gratefully acknowledged. Carol Gluck gave timely and inspirational support at every stage of the project, from her help in shaping its conceptual categories when it was still a dissertation proposal, to her suggestions for some last-minute improvements to the conclusion when it had become a book. Meticulous readings by Elizabeth Blackmar, Henry Smith, Arthur Tiedemann, Jack Snyder, and especially John Dower helped me rethink and reframe my ideas. Geoffrey Chambers, K

vin Shea, Elizabeth Tsunoda, Barbara Sat

, Kim Brandt, and Crawford Young were always available to read and discuss drafts. Laura Hein, Yanni Kotsonis, Kären Wigen, Roger Chickering, Sat

Kazuki, Julie Rousseau, Hyung Gu Lynn, Emily Young, and Imura Tetsuo made helpful suggestions on sections of the book. Carol Gluck's graduate seminars at Columbia University provided both insight and enthusiasm in generous measure, as did Carter Eckert's students at Harvard. For sharing with me in Japan their advice, contacts, and considerable private libraries I am indebted to Igarashi Takeshi, Eguchi Keiichi, Okabe Makio, Asada Ky

ji, Awaya Kentar

, Kimijima Kazuhiko, Kobayashi Hideo, Okamoto K

ichi, and Yanagisawa Asobu. The staffs of the Tokyo University Libraries, the National Diet Library, the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce Library, Waseda Library, and the Kindai Bungakukan provided service which frequently transcended the call of duty. I am particularly grateful to Ikuta Atsuko at the Ie no hikari ky

kai Reference Department, Shiraishi Hiroshi at the National Institute for Defense Studies, and Imura Tetsuo at the Institute of Developing Economies. Financial assistance was provided by Columbia University during the fall of 1988, by the Japan Foundation for fourteen months of research in Tokyo from January 1989 through the spring of 1990, and by the Giles Whiting Foundation for dissertation write-up during 1990–1991. Special thanks are due to the Reischauer institute for offering a congenial environment and the financial support that enabled me to begin to turn a dissertation into a book.

Note on Sources

Most primary materials cited in the notes can be located in the following Tokyo archives: Tokyo University Libraries, Waseda University Library, National Diet Library, Kindai bungakukan, le no hikari ky

kai, Tokyo Chamber of Commerce, and the Institute of Developing Economies. Unless otherwise indicated, the place of publication for all Japanese-language publications is Tokyo.

PART I

THE MAKING OF

A TOTAL EMPIRE

1 Manchukuo and Japan

Today the words “Empire of Japan” evoke multiple meanings: one set of images for former colonial subjects, another for former enemies in the Pacific War, and yet another for the Japanese themselves. No epoch did more to inscribe these words with meaning than the period between 1931 and 1945, when Japan moved aggressively to expand its overseas territory, occupying first China and then Southeast Asia, and initiating a series of military conflicts against Nationalist and Communist forces in China, against the Soviet Union, against the United States, and against the British Empire. At the heart of the new empire Japan won and then lost in the military engagements of these years lay the puppet state of Manchukuo in Northeast China.

Although Manchukuo was created in 1932, its roots went back to 1905, when Japan acquired a sphere of influence in the southern half of Manchuria as a result of victory in the Russo-Japanese War. A mix of formal and informal elements, the South Manchurian sphere of influence was anchored by long-term leases on the Liaodong Peninsula and on lands held by Japan's colonial railway company, the South Manchurian Railway, which the Japanese knew as Mantetsu. Over these leased territories, which represented but a small fraction of South Manchuria, Japan ruled directly through a formal colonial apparatus. Over the rest of South Manchuria Japan exerted influence indirectly, through the relationship with local Chinese rulers, through economic dominance of the market, and through the constant threat of force by its garrison army.

The first phase of Japanese involvement situated the sphere of influence in Manchuria within a rapidly expanding empire. By the end of World War I, the empire included Taiwan, Korea, the Pacific island chains the Japanese called Nan'yo, the southern half of Sakhalin, as well as participation СКАЧАТЬ

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