The Handy Psychology Answer Book. Lisa J. Cohen

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СКАЧАТЬ subjective judgments in the scoring. An instrument has inter-rater reliability when two or more raters rate the same material the same way.

      What does it mean to say a test is valid?

      The validity of a test reflects the degree to which it is measuring what it says it is measuring. Validity is often measured by correlation with a similar measure of the same construct. For example, a depression rating scale could be correlated with another questionnaire that measures depression. Differences across groups can also be used to establish validity. Does a group of depressed psychiatric inpatients score higher on the depression scale than a group of healthy subjects? For that matter, do the depressed patients score higher on the depression scale than a group of inpatients with schizophrenia? With convergent validity, measures of similar constructs will rate the same material similarly. Two measures of depression should be positively correlated. With divergent validity, measures of different constructs will rate the same material differently. A measure of depression should not be well correlated with a measure of happiness.

      Can you have reliability without validity?

      A test can be reliable without being valid. For example, a ruler is a reliable measure. It will always measure a given distance the same way. However, it is not a valid measure of depression, as the outcome of its measurements, no matter how consistent, have no relationship to depression. Although a test can be reliable without being valid, it cannot be valid without being reliable. If a test is inconsistent in its measurements, we cannot say it is measuring what it is intended to measure and, therefore, it is considered invalid.

      What is the Rorschach inkblot test?

      The Rorschach inkblot test is a well-known projective test. In fact, at one time it was so well known that it was often portrayed in the popular media, generally as a mysterious and somewhat menacing test that could magically see into people’s souls. The Rorschach consists of ten cards with images of inkblots, some in black-and-white and some with color. These blots were created by Herman Rorschach (1884–1922), who first published the test in 1922. Just as people see images in clouds, subjects see images in the inkblots and they are asked to identify and describe these images. The responses are then coded for their content and form, which are seen as reflective of the subject’s own mental processes. There are no set answers to this test; the subject must project his or her own thought processes onto the blot in order to make sense of it. The Rorschach is therefore called a projective test. Perhaps because Herman Rorschach originally developed his test with inpatient schizophrenics, this test is particularly sensitive to psychotic thought process.

      What criticisms have been leveled at the Rorschach?

      Although numerous scoring systems for the Rorschach have been developed since its original publication in 1922, in its heyday in the mid-twentieth century, the Rorschach was interpreted essentially arbitrarily, according to the whim of the clinician who was administering the test. Claims for the power of the Rorschach were also overblown and poorly supported by empirical research. Because of that, the Rorschach has been harshly criticized as unscientific. It was further disparaged because of its strong ties to psychoanalysis, a discipline also criticized as unscientific. Like the Rorschach, psychoanalysis involves the identification of emotional meaning in ostensibly neutral material.

      How did Exner’s system improve the Rorschach’s scientific legitimacy?

      In 1974, John Exner published the Comprehensive Scoring System for the Rorschach, in which he reworked earlier scoring systems into a comprehensive and systematic approach. He also provided considerable empirical research for his results, showing perfectly respectable reliability and validity. His system has been revised and updated multiple times. While there are still criticisms leveled at Exner’s approach, many of them legitimate, he has undeniably provided a scientifically supported system with which to score the Rorschach.

      This ink blot design is very similar to those used in Rorschach tests. As an experiment, try to see what images you can find in the ink blot. What part of the blot do you use? Are your images based on the form of the blot, or the white space?

      How does the R-PAS update the Exner system?

      In 2011, the Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS), a new scoring system for the Rorschach, was introduced. The R-PAS builds on the prior accomplishments of the Exner Comprehensive Scoring system but also corrects some of its limitations. After four decades in use, there was a good deal of data on the Exner system, which permitted careful assessment of the construct validity of the many measures included in this older system. In this way, the variables that had not shown much clinical utility could be removed, creating a more streamlined and rigorously tested scoring system. Moreover, new norms for the scores were introduced based on extensive analysis of several large international datasets. This allows a tester to convert an individual’s scores into percentile ranks based on larger and more diverse samples than were used before.

      What is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

      The TAT is another projective test, almost as well known as the Rorschach. The TAT was developed by Henry Murray in 1938. It consists of 20 cards with evocative and ambiguous drawings involving one or more people. Usually, only ten cards are administered at a time. Subjects are asked to tell a story about what is happening in the picture, what led up to it, and what will happen afterward. Subjects are also asked to say what the characters are thinking and feeling. Because the images are ambiguous, the subjects’ stories will reveal their personal ways of processing interpersonal relationships. Unfortunately, the TAT has not had the benefit of a John Exner to develop a modern scoring system. Therefore, without a reliable and valid scoring system, the TAT can only be used qualitatively and only in conjunction with other scientifically supported tests.

      What is the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI)?

      The MMPI is one of the oldest and best known self-report questionnaires. It measures various aspects of personality and psychopathology. The original version of the MMPI was developed in the 1940s. The second edition of the MMPI, known as the MMPI-2, was revised in 1989 and is still in use. Ten clinical scales are derived from 567 self-report items in a true/false format. These are: Hypochondriasis, Depression, Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviancy, Paranoia, Psychasthenia, Schizophrenia, Hypomania, Maculinity-Femininity, and Social Introversion. There are also a number of validity scales to assess response biases, such as under-reporting or over-reporting. Additionally, restructured clinical scales and subscales were added in 2003 and 2008. There is also a shorter MMPI-A for adolescents.

      INTELLIGENCE TESTING

      What is an IQ test?

      An IQ test is a test of cognitive skills that produces an IQ score. This refers to an intelligence quotient, which is an estimate of general intelligence. IQ tests have multiple subtests to tap different kinds of intellectual skills, such as memory, vocabulary, reasoning, attention, and copying skills. Tests therefore can include lists of vocabulary words to define, arithmetic problems, or drawings to be copied. All subtests have both easy and hard items, and the items become more difficult as the test goes on. The score is based on the number of items answered correctly.

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