Theories in Social Psychology. Группа авторов

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СКАЧАТЬ among narcissism, reactance, and sexual concern, arguing that a man with high sexual expectancy of sexual interaction would experience psychological reactance when there is refusal of sexual contact by a woman. The narcissistic inclination may mediate reactance, motivating the individual to attempt sexual coercion and rape. Family socialization impacts freedom sensitivity, which in turn makes the individual more responsive to freedom threats. In particular, persons with an achievement orientation, high independence, and high moral–religious values were positively associated with psychological reactance (Buboltz et al., 2003).

The application of reactance in understanding virtual interaction on the internet was undertaken by Daily (2004). Restrictions and blocks to navigation on the internet create psychological reactance and lead to negative emotions and avoidance behavior toward the blocked websites. Another study assessed forced exposure via pop-up advertisements and psychological reactance, attempting to understand factors that contribute to negative reactions to information and particularly advertisements via the internet (Edwards et al., 2002).

      Juvenile Defiance

      Reactance theory has assisted in the understanding of adolescents’ defiance, and problematic behavior as goal frustration toward a perceived free behavior can lead to reactance. Van Petegem et al. (2015) studied adolescents’ parental defiance. They found that parental controlling styles created autonomy need frustration eliciting adolescent’s reactance which in turn influenced adolescents’ behavioral problems, including internalizing and externalizing problems and non-acquiescence to parental requests. Kakihara and Tilton-Weaver (2009, p.1734) emphasize this point, noting: “If adolescents feel unduly constrained by their parents’ control, or interpret their parents’ control behaviors as a restriction of free will, consistent with reactance theory, they would likely seek avenues for reasserting their autonomy. This might include continuing prohibited behavior or friendships or seeking leisure contexts in which adults are not present, which are more likely to lead to increases in problem behaviors.” Further, parental styles may either enhance or neutralize reactance (Valkenburg et al., 2013). In another study, researchers (Lowenthal et al., 2021 ) found that older than younger adolescents were more defiant in responding to reminders to continue with their HIV medication. The authors suggest that adherence to medical treatment in this group could be higher if the relationship between autonomy and reactance is considered. Other studies have argued a relationship between parental psychological control and reactance (see Geng et al., 2020; Sharf & Goldner, 2018). Geng et al. findings suggest that reactance inclusive of negative cognition and affect emerging as a result of threat to autonomy may lead to externalizing behavior of cyberbullying. Additionally, adolescents’ need for independence has been associated with the use of tobacco. However, research has shown that higher levels of psychological reactance in this group are twice more likely to lead to a higher risk for smoking initiation (Miller et al., 2006). Message framing is essential, as one study found that gain-framed messages rather than loss-framed messages were less likely to create reactance as the latter was more likely to be perceived as a threat to freedom (Cho & Sands, 2011). Parental-juvenile interaction would benefit from the framing of discourses intend to reduce threats.

      Reactance and defiance may not only be situationally driven. For example, for three of the four factor structures identified in the Therapeutic Reactance Scale (TRS, a dispositional measure of reactance), Inman et al. (2019) found that there was a correlation between these factor structures and novelty seeking. Specifically, they found significant correlations between novelty seeking, (associated with impulsivity, disorderliness, excitability, and anger proneness), and conflict seeking resentment of authority and preservation of freedom. They recommend TRS as a useful measure for evaluation and to assist in interventions for counselors and psychologists to efficiently diagnose adolescents’ noncompliance in different settings.

      COVID-19

COVID-19 and the consequences of free behavior and threats to freedom have stimulated the interest of psychological reactance researchers. Health practices of handwashing, physical distancing, and mask-wearing are normative appeals that have reactance potential. Findings from Kang et al. (2021) suggest that normative appeals to health practices influenced threat to freedom but without negative cognitions resulting from an understanding of the consequences of COVID-19. Injunctive normative appeals than descriptive normative appeals were more likely to be perceived as threats to free behavior. Krpan and Dolan (2021) note that COVID-19 restrictive messages, though resulting in intention toward reactance, did not lead to behavioral reactance. Mask reluctance wearing emerging from reactance has implications for social distancing observance and propensity toward anti-vaccination (Taylor & Asmundson, 2021). Additionally, perceived threats devalue evaluation of protective behaviors and the pursuit of idiosyncratic goals (Reiss et al., 2020). Agency assignment of cause (i.e., human or virus as cause of COVID-19 virus) has implications for evoking reactance, including negative cognition, source derogation and anger, and having implications for health risk policies (Ma & Miller, 2021). Some other COVID-19 and reactance studies include: Scheid, Lupien, Ford, West, Carfora and Catellani (2021), De La Fuente et al. (2021), Kokkoris (2020), and Kirk and Rifkin (2020).

Table 2.1 summarizes research that focuses on psychological reactance as a state condition (i.e., influenced by the situation).

Table 2.1 Research on Situational Psychological Reactance.

Author	Comments
Brehm (1966)	Psychological reactance theory formally presented in this monograph.
Brehm and Cole (1966)	Explored the effects of a favour on reactance arousal. This study found that the importance participants place on the behavioral freedom influences the arousal and magnitude of reactance.
Brehm and Sensenig (1966)	Examined social influence as a function of implied or attempted threat to freedom. Results from this study showed that when a person’s freedom to choice is usurped, the individual will experience psychological reactance and thus reject the influence.
Hammock and Brehm (1966)	Explored the attractiveness of alternatives when freedom is reduced or eliminated. The two experiments yielded the results that a choice alternative which is eliminated by another person will tend to become more attractive, and a choice alternative forced by another person will tend to become less attractive.
Kornberg et al. (1970)	Proposed how psychological reactance can provide a new perspective on understanding political behavior. Results support the application of reactance theory in the study of political behavior.
Linder and Crane (1970)	Analyzed the converging attractiveness of two alternatives as the time for a final decision approaches. This study found that the importance of the decision and the initial attractiveness of the alternative combined to arouse reactance within a short period of time.
Wicklund (1970)	Examined cognitive dissonance theory and reactance theory as theoretical explanations for regret when decision freedom is threatened. The results indicated that under conditions designed specifically to discriminate between the two theories, the prediction from reactance theory was supported while the prediction from dissonance theory was not.
Worchel and Brehm (1970)	Examined the effect of strong threats to a person’s freedom in adopting attitudinal position and the effect of responses to threat as a function of initial agreement СКАЧАТЬ В начало < 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 > В конец