Earth Materials. John O'Brien
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Название: Earth Materials

Автор: John O'Brien

Издательство: John Wiley & Sons Limited

Жанр: География

Серия:

isbn: 9781119512219

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СКАЧАТЬ between ions of opposite charge (Coulomb attraction) and the repulsive force (Born repulsion) between the negatively charged electron clouds are balanced when the two ions approximate spheres in contact (Figure 2.11). If they were moved farther apart, the electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge would move them closer together. If they were moved closer together, the repulsive forces between the negatively charged electron clouds would move them farther apart. It is when they behave as approximate spheres in contact that these attractive and repulsive forces are balanced.

      Bonding mechanisms play an essential role in contributing to material properties. Crystals with ionic bonds are generally characterized by the following:

      1 Variable hardness that increases with increasing electrostatic bonding forces

      2 Brittle at room temperatures.

      3 Quite soluble in polar substances (such as water).

      4 Intermediate melting temperatures.

      5 Absorb relatively small amounts of light, producing translucent to transparent minerals with light colors and vitreous to sub‐vitreous luster in macroscopic crystals.

      2.3.3 Covalent (electron‐sharing) bonds

Schematic illustration of covalent bonding in oxygen (O2) by the sharing of two electrons from each atom.

      Other diatomic gases with covalent bonding mechanisms similar to oxygen include the column 17 (group VIIA) gases chlorine (Cl2), fluorine (F2), and iodine (I2) in which single electrons are shared between the two atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration. Another gas that possesses covalent bonds is nitrogen (N2) from column 15 (group V) where three electrons from each atom are shared to achieve a stable electron configuration. Nitrogen is the most abundant gas (>79% of the total) in Earth's lower atmosphere. In part because the two atoms in nitrogen and oxygen gas are held together by strong electron‐sharing bonds that yield stable electron configurations, these two molecules are the most abundant constituents of Earth's lower atmosphere.

Schematic illustration of covalent bonding (double lines) in a carbon tetrahedron with the central carbon atom bonded to four carbon atoms that occupy the corners of a tetrahedron (dashed lines).

      Source: Courtesy of Steve Dutch.

      Covalently bonded minerals are generally characterized by the following:

      1 Hard and brittle at room temperature.

      2 Insoluble in polar substances such as water.

      3 Crystallize from melts.

      4 Moderate to high melting temperatures.

      5 Absorb very little light, producing transparent to translucent minerals with light colors and vitreous to sub‐vitreous lusters in macroscopic crystals.

      2.3.4 Metallic bonds