Geology and Mineralogy of Gemstones. David Turner R.

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СКАЧАТЬ to form igneous rocks; weathering and erosion of igneous and metamorphic rock to produce sediments that lithify to form sedimentary rocks; some igneous and sedimentary rock undergo tectonic burial and metamorphism to form metamorphic rock. Spencer Sutton / Science Source.

The rock cycle (Figure 2.12) is a concept that describes how rocks can be transformed by various Earth processes into other rock types in the threefold classification. Note that not every rock has to pass through each of the stages in the rock cycle. For example, sedimentary rocks can be weathered into sediments without being subjected to metamorphism or melting, igneous rocks can be metamorphosed, and metamorphic rocks can undergo multiple stages of metamorphism.

2.4 Metasomatism and Hydrothermal Fluids

Gemstones can also be formed through the modification of existing rocks by hot fluids, known as hydrothermal fluids, passing through the Earth’s crust. These hydrothermal fluids contain various dissolved elements and compounds and are often out of chemical equilibrium with the rocks they are passing through. Chemical reactions between the rocks and fluids are common, with the fluids affecting the host rocks and imparting their chemical signatures. When these reactions take place, components from the host rocks can also affect the chemistry of the fluids. These processes are termed metasomatism. Hydrothermal fluids travel from areas of high temperature and/or pressure to areas of low temperature and/or pressure, and so generally move upwards within the crust. They favor geological structures with open or interconnected spaces but can also infiltrate or diffuse through solid rock (Figure 2.13). Cooling and precipitation of their dissolved components into minerals often take the form of veins.

2.5 Geological Structures

      The geological processes that lead to the three main rock types also give rise to a variety of geological structures, such as faults and folds. Faulting and folding can affect any rock type.

Faults are breaks or discontinuities in bedrock where rocks have failed in a brittle fashion. Faults may be small and little offset is seen between the two opposing rocks, or they may be very large features that extend to great depths and lengths. Faults may arise due to compressional, extensional, and transverse forces applied to the Earth’s dynamic crust, as well as combinations of these forces through geological time (Figure 2.14). Larger fault systems are sometimes referred to as shear zones and can comprise anastomosing networks of faults. Fault systems can provide preferential pathways for magmas and hydrothermal fluids to ascend within the crust, and also result in the juxtaposition of geochemically and geologically contrasting rock types.

Folds also represent past tectonic activity acting upon the Earth’s crust; however, they require plastic deformation as opposed to brittle deformation. Folds and resulting foliation are most strikingly observed in sedimentary rocks that started out as layered or stratified and were subjected to predominantly compressional forces in the Earth’s crust (Figures 2.15 and 2.16). The response of the rocks in a compressional regime is to shorten in the direction of compression and the Earth accommodates those forces through folding, just as a stack of loose papers would develop folds if pushed from the sides. Folds can also develop in extensional or tensional stress regimes, such as thick sedimentary basins with normal faulting and deformation or detachment features in extensional shear zones. Similar to faults, folding patterns may result in juxtaposed rock types and pathways through which magmas and hydrothermal fluids might preferentially travel along or through. These settings are important for laying the specific conditions in which certain gemstones deposits may form. Generally speaking, the most dramatic folding happens on a very large scale during continental building and collisional events, and fold patterns can extend over hundreds of kilometers with complex geometries.

2.6 Important Rock Types for Gemstone Deposits

Gemstones can be found in all three major rock classes but there are a few specific rock types that are most important. Kimberlites are arguably the most important rock type for gemstones, as these rare rocks represent the final stages of magmatism that bring diamonds from deep in the Earth towards the surface. They originate deep in the Earth’s interior and have distinct chemistry. Generally speaking, they are high in carbon dioxide (CO₂), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) and low in silicon (Si). Granitic rocks that have undergone considerable chemical fractionation are also important, as they become gradually more enriched in rare elements, such as beryllium (Be) and boron (B), which are essential components for several gemstones, such as aquamarine. Similarly, pegmatites that are enriched in rare elements are also very important for producing many varieties of gemstones, such as tourmaline. Sedimentary rocks of importance include limestones and evaporites. Although gemstones are not generally found in these rocks they are important protoliths for metamorphic gemstone deposits (such as marble‐hosted corundum). These concepts and specific rock types are discussed in greater detail in their relevant chapters.

Figure 2.13 Idealized schematics of fluid flow through the Earth’s crust with divisions based on diffuse permeation of fluids without fractures and fluid flow focused through fractures. Common quartz veins are generally characterized by some diffusional exchange with the wall rocks. Oliver & Bons (2001) / with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 2.14 Schematics of three fault types: reverse, normal, and strike‐slip. Reverse faults arise through compressional tectonics while normal faults arise from extensional tectonics and strike‐slip faults from transverse tectonic activity. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/geologic‐illustrations.htm / Public domain.

Figure 2.15 Schematics of three folding patterns of layered rocks. Here, the folds comprise an axial plane that separates one limb from another for the anticline structures of varying dips, or tilts. The syncline structures will also have axial planes but were left out for clarity in this diagram. Earle (2015) / CC BY 4.0.

2.7 Weathering, Sedimentation, and Secondary Gem Deposits

      Weathering and sedimentation are processes that give rise to the physical particles of clastic sedimentary rocks. Present‐day deposits of these unconsolidated materials are important sources of gemstones. Because most gemstones are durable, have high hardness, and are often above average density, they will tend to concentrate in riverbeds or other depositional settings if source rocks are present in the upstream watersheds. Three important types of secondary deposits include colluvial, alluvial, and eluvial.

Colluvial deposits normally exist as a fan of crystals or rocks migrating down a hillside, away from the primary source hosted in the bedrock. These types of deposits do not tend to concentrate residual and resistant minerals in great amounts. However, СКАЧАТЬ