Synthesis Gas. James G. Speight
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Название: Synthesis Gas

Автор: James G. Speight

Издательство: John Wiley & Sons Limited

Жанр: Физика

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isbn: 9781119707899

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СКАЧАТЬ demand for energy will depend on how efficiently the energy sector can match available energy resources (Figure 1.1) with the end user and how efficiently and cost effectively the energy can be delivered. These factors are directly related to the continuing evolution of a truly global energy market. In the long term, a sustainable energy future cannot be created by treating energy as an independent topic (Zatzman, 2012). Rather, the role of the energy and the interrelationship of the energy market with other markets and the various aspects of market infrastructure demand further attention and consideration. Greater energy efficiency will depend on the developing the ability of the world market to integrate energy resources within a common structure (Gudmestad et al., 2010; Speight, 2011b; Khoshnaw, 2013).

      World petro-politics are now in place (Bentley, 2002; Speight, 2011a) for the establishment of a synthetic fuels (including a biofuels) industry and, without being unduly dismissive of such efforts, it is up to various levels of government not only to promote the establishment of such an industry but to lead the way recognizing that it is not only a matter of supply and demand but of the available and variable technology. Unfortunately, although there may be sufficient crude oil remaining to maintain the Crude Oil Age (or the Petroleum Age, that is, the age in which the developed countries of the world operate) for another 50 years (Speight, 2011a, 2011b), the time to prepare is now. The world is not yet on the precipice of energy deficiency (as many alarmists claim) but it is necessary that the politicians in the various levels of (national) governments of oil-consuming nations look beyond the next election with an eye to the future. It should also be the focus of the proponents of biofuels production and use to ensure that sufficient feedstocks are available to successfully operate a biofuels refinery thereby contributing alternate fuels to the gradual (but not drastic) reduction of crude oil-based fuels (Speight, 2008; Giampietro and Mayumi, 2009; Speight, 2011a, 2011b). However, it is time for procrastination to cease, since delay will not help in getting beyond the depletion of crude oil and natural gas resources, and various levels of government must start being serious in terms of looking to the future for other sources of energy to supplement and even replace the current source of hydrocarbon fuels.

Tree diagram depicting the types of energy resources, with fossil fuels branching to crude oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale, etc. and geophysical energy resources branching to geothermal, wind, nuclear, tides, etc.

      Figure 1.1 Types of energy resources.

      In addition, and in keeping with the preferential use of lighter crude oil as well as maturation effect in the reservoir, crude oil available currently to the refinery is somewhat different in composition and properties from those available approximately 50 years ago (Parkash, 2003; Gary et al., 2007; Speight, 2008; Siefried and Witzel, 2010; Speight, 2011a, 2014a, 2015b; Hsu and Robinson, 2017; Speight, 2017). The current crude oils are somewhat heavier insofar as they have higher proportions of non-volatile (asphaltic) constituents. In fact, by the standards of yesteryear, many of the crude oils currently in use would have been classified as heavy feedstocks, bearing in mind that they may not approach the definitions that should be used based on the method of recovery. Changes in feedstock character, such as this tendency to more viscous (heavier) crude oils, require adjustments to refinery operations to handle these heavier crude oils to reduce the amount of coke formed during processing and to balance the overall product slate (Speight, 2011a, 2014a).

      As the 21st century matures, there will continue to be an increased demand for energy to support the needs of commerce industry and residential uses – in fact, as the 2040 to 2049 decade approaches, commercial and residential energy demand is expected to rise considerably – by approximately 30% over current energy demand. This increase is due, in part, to developing countries, where national economies are expanding and the move away from rural living to city living is increasing. In addition, the fuel of the rural population (biomass) is giving way to the fuel of the cities (transportation fuels, electric power) as the lifestyles of the populations of developing countries changes from agrarian to metropolitan. Furthermore, the increased population of the cities requires more effective public transportation systems as the rising middle class seeks private means of transportation (automobiles). As a result, fossil fuels will continue to be the predominant source of energy for at least the next 50 years.

      The danger revealed by the peak energy theory is that the world is approaching an energy precipice in which (apparently) crude oil that is available one year will not be available the next year. On the other hand, the peak energy opponents take a more realistic view in that the depletion of fossil fuels will occur gradually and, and with the current trends in considering other sources of energy, the concept of the energy precipice is not logical (Speight and Islam, 2016).

      The most unrealistic variable in the peak energy scenario arises from the misuse of data that supposedly indicate that the world is approaching the energy precipice in which fossil fuel will no longer be available for use as energy sources – the date of the energy precipice is not only wildly speculative but, in many cases, totally unrealistic. Fossil fuel energy sources will undoubtedly reach a depletion point in the future when these energy sources are no longer available – but not at the moment or even in the present century. At the same time, new gas-fired generating units use highly efficient technologies and are supported by abundant gas supplies. As a result, gas is increasingly viewed as the most economical fossil fuel choice for electricity generation for the United States. Finally, a word on reserve estimation. There are a number of different methods by which crude oil and natural gas reserves can be calculated. These methods can be grouped into three general categories: (i) volumetric methods, (ii) materials balance method, and (iii) the decline curve method or production performance method.