From Paideia to High Culture. Imelda Chlodna-Blach

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СКАЧАТЬ possession of ethical excellence (kalokagathía) is a prerequisite for the sense of self-worth and a justified pride, called by Aristotle magnanimity¹⁷² (Gr. megalopsychía, Lat. magnanimitas). Magnanimity was known long before the appearance of Aristotle’s ethics. In Homer’s poetry, magnanimity appears as a feature of heroes (Achilles, Odysseus and others) in the form of the aristocratic pride. Homer does not know the word “magnanimity.” He speaks not of the “great spirit” but of the “great heart” (megas thymos) of his protagonists.¹⁷³ The aim (duty) of knights of noble birth is to apply for the laurel of primacy. In consequence, they gain reverence and fame. The constant striving for the highest bravery and consequently for great fame is boosted by the very sense of pride. In addition, it guarantees integrity and moral perfection of a well-born man who could not deserve the highest honour if he behaved inappropriately in any sphere of life.¹⁷⁴

      Plato used the word megalopsychía to define “arrogance” (“ambition’) – Greek aphrosyne.¹⁷⁵

      For Aristotle, the term areté has a strictly moral connotation – it denotes every individual virtue, not only bravery. Despite the fact that there was a crisis of the ←51 | 52→heroic bravery in his times, thinking about the heritage of ancestors and their areté becomes a model of not only an aristocratic but also a democratic education. For Aristotle then, magnanimity denotes a sort of greatness and strength of the spirit. The justifiably proud man is the one who, while considering himself worthy of great things, actually deserves them (he thinks that he deserves what he is actually worthy of). The justified pride is a belief that one is able to do great things and it is the feature of the man who trusts his own power.¹⁷⁶ Knowing oneself is a prerequisite of magnanimity. It constitutes the basis of the good self-esteem. As Aristotle writes: “[…] Vain people, however, are foolish, and ignorant of themselves quite obviously so.’¹⁷⁷ In order to develop, one must therefore face the truth about oneself. Humility, which is a condition for the acceptance of truth, is very helpful at this point. It prevents us from striving for what is beyond our capacities. We must be aware of our own powers with regard to what is beyond their grasp.

      Therefore, magnanimity refers to great things. A magnanimous man has the ability to correctly evaluate great and small goods. The following questions arise here: what are the great things which make the soul great (magna anima)? What is the subject of magnanimity?

      Aristotle explains that great goods are the ones which are aimed at by a person who has the best disposition for it, namely, the virtue of magnanimity.¹⁷⁸ It is necessary to recall the hierarchy of goods by Aristotle to understand what the great goods are.¹⁷⁹ The goods mentioned by him include what is morally beautiful (bonum honestum), then what is useful (bonum utile) and subsequently what is pleasant (bonum delectabile). The decent good is ranked the highest in this hierarchy since it is most suited to the specific functions of man (it draws him closer to the ultimate goal). This specific human function is rational acting, whereas the specific function of a brave man is the same type of action performed in a particularly good manner.¹⁸⁰ Thus, the subject of magnanimity is the decent good because it is the only good that can improve the soul (move closer to happiness). It is desired for its own sake, it is not easy but it is very honourable. Virtue constitutes such good because it is a perfection of a particular power, ←52 | 53→which realizes itself (improves) not through any action but through the great or difficult act.¹⁸¹

      Striving for great goods is difficult, that is why the virtue of magnanimity is also helpful in overcoming the difficulties. Although Aristotle distinguished many virtues and grouped them according to the division of powers of the spirit, which they improve, he realized that moral conduct was marked by unity. All virtues are linked by the fact that the essence of each of them is constituted by the internal measure, the maintenance of which depends on a particular virtue of prudence. The indicated unity is also guaranteed by the attitude of the subject of virtues (man), a certain desire to act in line with this internal measure in every situation, which is beautiful according to Aristotle but rare at the same time and above all difficult. The greatest of all virtues is magnanimity. It is on top in two meanings: firstly, it consists of a set of human virtues, called kalokagathía, secondly, the awareness of man, who possesses it, of their value due to which the indicated virtues are brought to full bloom. Moreover, the consciousness makes the magnanimous man want only the great things and despise the small ones.

      Speaking of magnanimity, Aristotle has in mind the desire to possess the greatest external good, and this is what we give to the gods, what people holding the highest positions aim at and what constitutes a reward for the noblest deeds. This is reverence (timé). That is why the justified pride is associated with reverence,¹⁸² which is one of the most significant features of a magnanimous man. The benevolent man honours the virtue above all, and being aware of possessing it, he expects honour for his virtue and for himself from others. The reverence is the greatest external good.¹⁸³ It is a kind of worship usually conducted by people ←53 | 54→with reference to gods only. It is inseparably associated with “great deeds.” It is the greatest award for virtue. Proper attitude towards reverence and infamy is also a secondary object of magnanimity.

      Moreover, Aristotle emphasizes that the justifiably proud man is at the same time the bravest man in ethical terms. The more virtues we have the greater things we are worthy of. The man with the greatest number of virtues is worthy of the greatest things. The reverence is therefore a reward for ethical valour and is awarded only to those who are ethically brave. Thus, it is impossible to be justifiably proud without ethical excellence (kalokagathía).¹⁸⁴ A justifiably proud man enjoys the privileges coming from noble men, however, he ignores the privileges coming from insignificant people and resulting from unimportant deeds.¹⁸⁵ In addition, he disdains the symptoms of infamy because they are not just with reference to him.¹⁸⁶ The man with a well-founded pride can be therefore recognized by, among other things, his attitude to privileges, wealth and power,¹⁸⁷ success and failure in general. Such man will be primarily characterized by virtue of moderation.

      Thus, Aristotle strongly stresses the significance of ethical valour. He points out that people, who have external goods without ethical valour, easily become proud and impudent and additionally, they are wrongly convinced of their superiority.¹⁸⁸

      The man who is justifiably proud faces dangers when it comes to important things. He is also willing to make benefactions, he helps willingly and acts openly, tells the truth, he is not vindictive, he does not gossip, he does not complain and ask for things of small significance or the ones which are immutable. ←54 | 55→He is inclined to have rather beautiful things and not the ones that yield benefit or profit.¹⁸⁹

      The virtue associated with justified pride is ambition. As Aristotle writes, it does not have a Greek synonym (name). It is translated as a restraint with regard to the greed for reverence.¹⁹⁰

      When it comes to the consequences for the entire moral life, resulting from the reverence understood in this way, it must be stressed that it presupposes moral perfection (virtuous conduct in every sphere of life), since – in accordance with the definition of a magnanimous man – the one who does not follow virtue in a particular area (behaves badly) cannot be worthy of the highest reverence.¹⁹¹ This perfection is not to be understood in the current sense, as having an act of all virtues, but as an improvement to given acts (dispositions for them).¹⁹² Such striving for greatness in behaviour provides not only the unity of all virtues (is a prerequisite of this unity) but also, in consequence, the unity of a human character.

      Continuous striving for greatness becomes a permanent feature of character and adds a feature of perfection to each action. Therefore, the reverence is such a general feature which is a prerequisite for a full moral life, due to striving for what is great and the second feature, next to prudence, that unites all virtues as if from the interior, by maintaining a proper measure of reason in every act. A similar thought guided Marcin from Brakara (the sixth century), who replaced valour СКАЧАТЬ