Scripture Footnotes. George Martin

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      Daily Life in the Time of Jesus

What is the Aramaic language?

      Aramaic was originally the language of the Arameans, a people living in what is today Syria (Gen 25:20). Their language was adopted by others, becoming an international diplomatic language (2 Kings 18:26) and eventually the language of the Persian Empire. Aramaic became the common language of Jews living in Palestine while they were under Persian rule (much as Spanish became the common language of most of South America because of its time under Spanish rule). As a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century, Greek became the common language of the eastern Mediterranean world. Yet Aramaic persisted as the native language of rural Galileans, and was the native language of Jesus.

Why were banquets so popular?

      Banquets played important social and religious roles at the time of Jesus. They were not only a chance for ordinary people to enjoy ample food and wine, which they otherwise rarely did, but also a form of entertainment in a world that offered few diversions compared to the modern world. Banquets marked special occasions, such as weddings (Matt 22:2; John 2:1–10) or the homecoming of a wayward son (Luke 15:23). Those who were wealthy could feast every day (Luke 16:19). Banquets were also used to celebrate religious feasts, such as Passover (Exod 12:1–28). It was the custom at Greek banquets for diners to recline on their left side on cushions or couches arranged in a U-shape. Servants served the food on low tables inside the U. Jews adopted the custom of reclining during banquets, as John shows in his account of the Last Supper (John 13:12, 23–25). The prophets spoke of God providing a banquet for his people (Isaiah 25:6), and Jesus used a feast as an image for the reign of God (Matt 8:11; 22:1–14; Luke 13:24–29; 14:15–24). Having plenty of good food to eat would have sounded heavenly to Jesus’ listeners.

What was distinctive about Jewish burial practices at the time of Jesus?

      Jewish burials took place as soon as possible after death. The corpse was washed and anointed with ointments and perfumes and wrapped in cloth. Ordinary Jews were buried in simple graves dug in the ground; in the Jerusalem area, some wealthier Jews were buried in cave-like tombs carved into the limestone hillsides surrounding the city. These tombs usually contained several chambers and served entire families for several generations. Burials in family tombs were usually a two-step process. First, the corpse lay on a shelf in the tomb for about a year. Then, after the flesh had decayed away, the bones were collected and placed in a pit containing the bones of the person’s ancestors. Or, in Jerusalem at the time of Jesus, bones were often placed instead in an ossuary, a lidded box carved from limestone; typically, such boxes were about twenty-four by eighteen by twelve inches. The box was then set in a recess in the tomb complex. Sometimes the bones of several members of a family were placed in the same box. In 1990, archaeologists excavating a tomb on the southern edge of Jerusalem found a bone box with an Aramaic form of the name “Caiaphas” inscribed on it. Inside were bones identified as those of a man about sixty, an adult woman, a teenage boy, a young child, and two infants. Archaeologists believe that the bones of the man are those of the Caiaphas who was high priest from A.D. 18 to 36 (see John 11:49).

What kind of clothing did people wear?

      The two basic items of clothing at the time of Jesus were the tunic and the cloak (see Luke 6:29; Acts 9:39). The tunic was an inner garment often made by folding a rectangle of cloth, sometimes linen, over on itself and stitching the sides, with openings for the head and arms. The cloak, often wool, was an outer garment, perhaps a loose-fitting robe or a rectangular cloth that one draped around oneself. These garments were worn by both men and women, with only color and decoration distinguishing them. A Jewish man’s cloak would have tassels (Num 15:37–40; Deut 22:12). Belts were used to cinch tunics and cloaks. A head covering could be simply a cloth draped or tied around the head; leather sandals protected the feet. The upper class could afford imported silk and dyes, and their clothing proclaimed their status.

Was crucifixion a fact of life?

      Most everyone at the time of Jesus had heard of crucifixions even if they had not witnessed them personally. Crucifixion was an exceedingly cruel form of execution used by a number of ancient peoples. Rome adopted crucifixion as its way of executing slaves, rebels, and lower-class, violent criminals. The Romans crucified many both before and after Jesus, including thousands when Rome put down the Jewish revolt of A.D. 66–70. Crucifixions were done in a variety of ways using different styles of crosses. Common Roman practice was to first scourge the one to be crucified, to increase suffering. Then the condemned was forced to carry a crossbeam to the place of execution, where an upright post would already be in place. Roman crucifixions were done at public sites, such as along a busy road, in order to make them a public display. The one to be crucified was stripped of his clothing, and his arms were tied or nailed to the crossbeam. The crossbeam was then lifted up and fixed to the upright beam at a notch cut either in its top or in its side. Usually the person’s feet were nailed or tied to the upright beam. Romans often posted a sign indicating the crime for which the person was being crucified. Despite their suffering, those who were crucified could survive for several days, tormented by pain, thirst, insects, and the shame of dying naked before others. Death usually resulted from shock or suffocation when chest muscles gave out. A body was sometimes left on the cross until it disintegrated, eaten by rats and vultures. Crucifixion was designed to be as painful and degrading a death as possible. Rome used crucifixion not merely as a punishment but also as a warning of what would happen to those who challenged Roman authority.

What did people eat?

      Bread was the basic food of ordinary people in Palestine at the time of Jesus and provided a substantial part of their daily calorie intake. Most families baked their own bread daily in an outdoor oven and ate bread at every meal. Bread was usually made from wheat; barley bread was cheaper but less desirable. Bread made up so much of the diet that the word for bread could be used to refer to food in general. Grain was also eaten parched (“roasted” — Ruth 2:14). Legumes such as beans and lentils, and vegetables such as cucumbers and onions rounded out meals, along with fruits such as grapes, figs, dates, and pomegranates, among others. Grapes could be processed into wine or raisins. Olives were eaten whole or crushed for oil, which was used in cooking and dipping. Goats and sheep provided milk, often processed into yogurt and cheese. Fish from the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean were consumed fresh (John 21:9–10), or dried, salted, or pickled to preserve them, and were eaten whole or as a condiment for bread. Herbs, spices, and salt added taste to even simple meals. Ordinary people ate meat on special occasions, such as feasts (Luke 15:23); the extent to which meat was eaten more often is debated today. Meals were eaten with the fingers, with pieces of bread used as edible spoons to scoop up porridges and soak up sauces (Ruth 2:14; John 13:26), as is still the custom in some Middle Eastern cultures today. Members of the upper class ate much better than ordinary people: imported wines graced their tables, along with ample meat.

How common was farming?

      Farmers made up most of the population of rural Galilee. Unlike American farmers, who tend to live in isolated houses on their farms, Galilean farmers lived together in small towns and villages and went out to work their fields. They grew grain crops, including wheat and barley; fruits, such as grapes, olives, and figs; and vegetables, such as lentils, beans, peas, and cucumbers. Galilee contained some prime farmland in its valleys, including the broad valleys north and south of Nazareth. Much of the prime land had been expropriated by rulers, such as Herod Antipas at the time of Jesus, who either had it managed for them or entrusted it to their influential supporters. Some farmers worked as tenant farmers or day laborers on these estates. Most farmers owned their own plots of land, which were often small and were sometimes on a rocky hillside that had to be terraced to support crops. Farmers were subject to tithes and taxes on their crops, which by some estimates added up to 40 percent of their harvests. These farmers were better off than day laborers, but a СКАЧАТЬ