Collins Good Grammar. Graham King

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СКАЧАТЬ PLACESstreet, home, Germany, Paris, heavenOBJECTSplate, chair, tree, chamber pot, airPERSONSEinstein, Michael Jackson, CarolineANIMALSpony, pig, wolfhound, chimpanzeeCONCEPTSoption, bad temper, ability, direction

      We also recognise types of nouns. All nouns are either proper nouns – that is, names that are specific or unique:

       Marilyn Monroe, Saturday, The Rake’s Progress, Mercedes, Brooklyn Bridge, Easter

      or common nouns, which describe groups or members of groups, rather than individuals, or which broadly identify something:

       boy, motor cars, tea, hair, darkness, opinions, anger, idea

      You’ll notice that proper nouns start with capital letters, and that common nouns don’t. Common nouns are also divided into concrete and abstract nouns, count and non-count nouns, singular, plural and collective nouns, and these are all discussed in Naming Things: Nouns, on page 64.

       Verbs

      Verbs are all about doing and being. They’re action words. They’re the engines that drive sentences to make them do something. Imagine trying to get through a day without these workhorses:

       wake, woke, eat, drink, walked, drove, go, talked, do, keep, appear, exist, become, sleeps, dream

      You can see, even from these few examples, that verbs take several forms, some ending in -s, -ed, and so on, and in fact most verbs have four or more forms to help us grasp when an action is taking place:

       eat, eats, eating, eaten, ate

       write, writes, writing, wrote, written

      If you look up the words eats, eating, eaten or ate in a dictionary you may have difficulty finding them. However you will find them in the entry following the basic verb eat, which is called the headword, along with derivatives such as eatable, eater, eating house, eatables, eat out, eat up, eat one’s heart out, etc.

      Apart from their multiplicity of forms, verbs are notoriously variable: they can be regular (where they follow certain rules) and irregular (where they don’t); they can be main verbs or auxiliary verbs, transitive and intransitive, finite and infinite. But don’t let these grammatical gremlins scare you because they will be exposed for the poor, simple workaholics they are in the section on verbs on page 95.

       Adjectives

      Life without adjectives would be difficult, frustrating and extremely dull, because adjectives describe and modify things:

       hot, freezing, beautiful, hairy, user-friendly, brainless, distasteful, pathogenic, pliable

      Some adjectives give themselves away by their endings: -ing, -y, -less, -ful, -ic and so on. They can also end with -ly which can cause us to confuse them with adverbs, which often end with the same suffix.

      Simply put, adjectives add something to nouns and pronouns by modifying –

       It was a dreary match.

       We made a late start.

      or by extending or reinforcing a noun’s descriptive power –

       It was an obvious mistake.

       The lady possessed hypnotic charm.

      You’ll see that all the adjectives in the examples so far have come before the noun, but this need not always be the case:

       The lady’s charm was hypnotic.

      There is a fuller discussion of adjectives and how to use them on page 120.

       Adverbs

      Because they add information, adverbs are close relations to adjectives, as you can see:

Adjectives	Adverbs
essential	essentially
hypnotic	hypnotically
interesting	interestingly
dark	darkly

      Don’t be tricked, however, by believing that all adverbs end in -ly. They’re very common, but the adverb family includes several other forms: afterwards, enough, always, nevertheless, otherwise.

      The difference between adjectives and adverbs is that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, while adverbs describe or modify verbs, adjectives and even other adverbs:

MODIFYING A VERB	He trudged wearily along the road.(How did he walk along the road?)
MODIFYING AN ADJECTIVE	She’s an exceedingly lucky girl.(To what extent is she lucky?)
MODIFYING ANOTHER ADVERB	The engine turned over very smoothly.
	(How smoothly did it turn over?)

      Adverbs are often required where adjectives are incorrectly used, and vice versa. A guide to their usage will be found on page 120.

       Pronouns

      Pronouns are stand-ins for nouns and noun phrases, and are especially useful for avoiding repetition:

WITHOUT A PRONOUN	He saw James in the bar, and went over to meet James.
	Was I aware that Marcia was married?Of course I knew Marcia was married.
WITH A PRONOUN	He saw James in the bar, and went over to meet him.
	Was I aware that Marcia was married.Of course I knew she was.

      You can readily see that pronouns are indispensable, and they (pronoun) form a major part of our (pronoun) everyday speech.

      We divide pronouns into personal pronouns (I, me, you, he, she, it), possessive pronouns (mine, ours, his, theirs), reflexive pronouns (myself, themselves), demonstrative pronouns (this, these, those), interrogative pronouns (who? what? which?), relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that), indefinite pronouns (all, any, many, everyone, few, most) and reciprocal pronouns (one another, each other).

      If you experienced a slight prickly sensation when glancing through those definitions the reason is most likely that pronouns can СКАЧАТЬ