Renewable Energy for Sustainable Growth Assessment. Группа авторов

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СКАЧАТЬ Brazil United States India European Union Thousand jobs Liquid biofuels 2,063 51 832 311 35 208 Solid biomass ^{a, b} 787 186 79 58 387 Biogas 334 145 7 85 67

      ^a Power and heat applications.

      ^b Traditional biomass is not included.

Table 1.2 Heat production from biomass in EJ [35].

Years	Total	Biomass
2016	1.10	1.05
2017	1.12	1.08

Table 1.3 Bioenergy technologies [4–49].

Characteristics	Advantages	Disadvantages
Bioenergy conversion schemesa. Bioenergy share is 13-14% of the world’s total energy consumptionb. Traditionally biomass energy is mainly utilized forc. Heating and cooking, which accounts for about 8%.d. Modern bioenergy is utilized for running plant and transport.e. USA is largest producer of biodiesel and ethanol.	i) A suitable source of energyii) They are used in transportation fuel generation, i.e., bio-diesel etc.	Carbon emissions from burning Wastes Resource availability risk

1.2 Bioenergy Chemical Characterization

      If one clearly identifies the residue of biomass, one may find different components like lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose having different percentage. The chemical composition may vary depending on the structures of the bioenergy [50].

      1.2.1 Cellulose [C₆(H₂O)₅]_n

      The most important chemical component in the biomass is cellulose, which contains 90% of total cotton and 50% of total wood and possesses a very strong function in the plant cell wall [51]. The creation of an intermolecular hydrogen bond on different hydroxyl group makes it more firm and stable [52]. In addition to that, [53] confirmed that the group of hydroxyl have greater reactivity as compared to the secondary ones because of low impediment.

      1.2.2 Hemicellulose [C₅(H₂O)₄]_n

      Hemicellulose is different for different plants [54], and it is generally found to get decomposed in between 180-350 °C and produces aldehydes, ketones, non-condensable coal gas, furans and acids [55].

      1.2.3 Lignin [C₁₀H₁₂O₃]_n

      The content of lignin is also different for different species and ranges between 25-30% for soft plants and can be as high as 50% for ebony like hard species of plant. The major elemental components like carbon are up to 65%, for hydrogen, it is between 5-6%, and the rest are mostly oxygen [56]. The methoxylation of the compounds plays a very crucial role, and because of it, the composition varies [57]. At the temperature of around 128 °C, dry lignin begins to soften, but this also depends on the molecular weight and with the increase in molecular weight, the softening temperature is bound to increase [58]. The availability of lignin is quite high [59, 60]. It has got higher calorific value as compared to cellulose [61] and can be subsequently used for the production of bioplastics, additives etc. [62]. Several high valued components are produced from it [63–66].

      1.2.4 Starch

      Starch is found mainly in two forms in nature, i.e., hot water soluble amylose (25-27%) and water-insoluble amylopectin (73-75%) [67]. The residues of α-Dglucose are joined in starch to form long chains in order to create polymers [68].

      1.2.5 Other Minor Components of Organic Matter

      The important substrates of biomass that influences the treatment process are lipids, nucleic acid, proteins, acetyls and uronic acid [69–75].

1.2.6 Inorganic Matter

      Biomass often contains several inorganic substances and especially in the form of ash content [76]. The major elements that are constituents of biomass are potassium, sodium, silicon, calcium, iron and aluminium [77].

1.3 Technologies Available for Conversion of Bioenergy

      Three main routes are available for the conversion of biomass to usable forms. They are as follows:

       i. Thermo-chemical conversions:It involves the process of pyrolysis, gasification, combustion and liquefaction [41, 78–86], as shown in Figure 1.4.

       ii. Biochemical conversions:This route helps in converting biomass to the main carbohydrate so that further, it can be converted to several bio-products like biogas and mainly liquid fuels. The agents involved are mainly bacteria and enzymes [87]. Important available technologies are fermentation and anaerobic digestion [81, 88–95].

       iii. Physico-chemical conversions:The exact conversion of biomass into bio-oil is dependent on several variables or elements, i.e., composition of feedstock, temperature and heating value, pressure, solvent, residence time, and catalysts. The process mainly involves the conversion of vegetable oil and animal fat into biodiesel. Major oils used are rapeseed, jatropha, sunflower [96, 97]. Comparison of bio-fuel (bio-diesel and bio-ethanol) production for different countries over the period 1990-2019 is shown in Figure 1.5 [98].

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